Cited by 141Ancient Mediterranean Archaeology and HistoryBiblical Studies and InterpretationArchaeology and ancient environmental studies

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An Archaeological Contribution to the Early Iron Age Chronological Debate: Alternative Chronologies for Phoenicia and Their Effects on the Levant, Cyprus, and Greece

Gilboa, Ayelet, Sharon, Ilan·2003·Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research

DOI 10.2307/1357808

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Abstract

The debate over the chronology of the early Iron Age in Israel by far transcends Palestinian archaeology, history, and biblical historiography. Chronologies for most of the adjacent regions, and those of entities farther afield, such as Cyprus and Greece, are largely dependent on the Levant. The debate has centered to date mainly on historical considerations, adjusting the chronologies of the material record to the different proposed scenarios. This article advocates an opposite approach, namely, constructing detailed artifactual, mainly ceramic sequences, anchoring these to an absolute time scale by 14C dating, and only then correlating them with historical data. Southern Phoenicia is proposed as a starting point for such an endeavor. Not only does it offer the most detailed stratigraphic/ceramic sequence to date for the early Iron Age in the Southern Levant, its commercial ties provide a wealth of ceramic indices for correlating the Phoenician sequence with other series of the Levant and farther Mediterranean regions. To a large extent these overcome problems of regionalism, which otherwise hamper attempts at chronological cross-correlations in this relatively fragmented period. Two alternative chronologies are presented: the traditional, high chronology, which has been established mainly on the basis of biblical/historical considerations, and the newly proposed low one, which is supported by radiometric dates from Tel Dor. The adoption of either one will entail a revision…

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Sapir-Hen, L., Bar-Oz, G., Sharon, I., Gilboa, A., & Dayan, T. (2014) · Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental research · doi:10.5615/bullamerschoorie.371.0083 · Cited by 28
Self-citation
The Iron I/IIA transition in the Levant: a reply to Mazar and Bronk Ramsey and a new perspective
Finkelstein, I., & Piasetzky, E. (2010) · Radiocarbon · doi:10.1017/s003382220005640x · Cited by 34
“Area D-2 Stratum 10-9; the samples came from a building that was abandoned rather than destroyed (Gilboa and Sharon 2003:33–4).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Radiocarbon dating the Greek Protogeometric and Geometric periods: The evidence of Sindos
Gimatzidis, S., & Weninger, B. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0232906 · Cited by 47
On the Origin of Iron Age Phoenician Ceramics at Kommos, Crete: Regional and Diachronic Perspectives across the Bronze Age to Iron Age Transition
Gilboa, A., Waiman‐Barak, P., & Jones, R. E. (2015) · Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research · doi:10.5615/bullamerschoorie.374.0075 · Cited by 25
“Chronologically, the vessels sampled in Cyprus span the Cypro-Geometric I–III periods, equaling grosso modo Ir1b–Ir2a in Phoenicia (for the correlation, see Gilboa and Sharon 2003) .”
BackgroundSelf-citation
The Earliest Greek Import in the Iron Age Levant
Maeir, A. M., Fantalkin, A., & Zukerman, A. (2009) · Ancient West & East · doi:10.2143/awe.8.0.2045838 · Cited by 37
“56 Gilboa and Sharon 2003, 66; Mazar 2004, 29.”
BackgroundInfluential
Reassessing Human Settlement on the South Coast of San Miguel Island, California: The Use of 14C Dating as a Reconnaissance Tool
Braje, T., Erlandson, J., & Rick, T. (2005) · Radiocarbon: An International Journal of Cosmogenic Isotope Research · doi:10.1017/s0033822200052140 · Cited by 24
The Date and Origin of Black-on-Red Ware: The View from Megiddo
Kleiman, A., Fantalkin, A., Mommsen, H., & Finkelstein, I. (2019) · American Journal of Archaeology · doi:10.3764/aja.123.4.0531 · Cited by 29
“32 Gilboa and Sharon 2003, 66; Smith 2009, 231–33; cf. table 3; Georgiadou 2016.”
BackgroundInfluential
Urbanism on Late Bronze Age Cyprus: LC II in Retrospect
Negbi, O. (2005) · Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental research · doi:10.1086/basor25066873 · Cited by 21
New relative sea-level (RSL) indications from the Eastern Mediterranean: Middle Bronze Age to the Roman period (~3800–1800 y BP) archaeological constructions at Dor, the Carmel coast, Israel
Yasur-Landau, A., Shtienberg, G., Gambash, G., Spada, G., Melini, D., Arkin-Shalev, E., Tamberino, A., Reese, J. R., Levy, T. E., & Sivan, D. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0251870 · Cited by 20
Writing and Society in Ancient Cyprus
Steele, P. M. (2018) · doi:10.1017/9781316729977 · Cited by 20
The Origin of Tel Dor Hacksilver and the Westward Expansion of the Phoenicians in the Early Iron Age: The Cypriot Connection
Wood, J. R., Bell, C., & Montero-Ruiz, I. (2020) · Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology & Heritage Studies · doi:10.5325/jeasmedarcherstu.8.1.0001 · Cited by 19
Greece and the Levant in the 10th–9th centuries BC
Mazar, A., & Kourou, N. (2019) · Opuscula Annual of the Swedish Institutes at Athens and Rome · doi:10.30549/opathrom-12-12 · Cited by 17
“18 Nitsche 1986–1987; Coldstream & Bikai 1988, 38–40; Coldstream 1998, 353–357; Lemos 2002, 227; Gilboa & Sharon 2003, 68–69.”
BackgroundResultInfluential
The Emergence of Early Phoenicia
Lehmann, G. (2021) · Jerusalem Journal of Archaeology · doi:10.52486/01.00001.11 · Cited by 38
“In the chronology of Southern Phoenicia this period is labeled Ir1a (Gilboa and Sharon 2003).”
BackgroundInfluential
Capital of Solomon's Fourth District? Israelite Dor
Gilboa, A., Sharon, I., & Bloch-Smith, E. M. (2015) · Levant · doi:10.1179/0075891414z.00000000051 · Cited by 52
“This ‘early sequence’ has been summarized previously (Gilboa and Sharon 2003; 2008; Sharon and Gilboa 2013; Stern 1999b, and see references therein to more detailed studies, inter alia of specific categories of pottery).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citation
The application of LA-ICP-MS, EPMA and Raman micro-spectroscopy methods in the study of Iron Age Phoenician Bichrome pottery at Tel Dor
Shoval, S. (2017) · Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2017.03.040 · Cited by 17
Geo-ethnoarchaeology study of the traditional Tswana dung floor from the Moffat Mission Church, Kuruman, North Cape Province, South Africa
Berna, F. (2017) · Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences · doi:10.1007/s12520-017-0470-0 · Cited by 17
“This building is one of the largest edifices of the Iron Age in the entire eastern Mediterranean region (Gilboa and Sharon 2003).”
Background
Fenicios en Huelva, en el siglo X AC, durante el reinado de Hîrãm I de Tiro
Martín, A. M. (2006) · SPAL Revista de Prehistoria y Arqueología de la Universidad de Sevilla · doi:10.12795/spal.2006.i15.08 · Cited by 17
An interdisciplinary approach to Iron Age Mediterranean chronology through combined archaeological and 14C-radiometric evidence from Sidon, Lebanon
Doumet‐Serhal, C., Gimatzidis, S., Weninger, B., von Rüden, C., & Kopetzky, K. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0274979 · Cited by 29
“So far only Tel Dor (see below) and Sidon have provided archaeological remains along the Levantine coast that can support these contacts.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
The Southern Levantine Roots of the Phoenician Mercantile Phenomenon
Gilboa, A. (2022) · Bulletin of the American Society of Overseas Research · doi:10.1086/718892 · Cited by 15
Self-citation
Pottery and Society in Iron Age Philistia: Feasting, Identity, Economy, and Gender
Faust, A. (2015) · Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research · doi:10.5615/bullamerschoorie.373.0167 · Cited by 10
Tell el-Ful Revisited: The Assyrian and Hellenistic Periods (with a New Identification)
Finkelstein, I. (2011) · Palestine Exploration Quarterly · doi:10.1179/003103211x12971861556918 · Cited by 13
“These groups appeared in the Levant in the late Iron I period (Gilboa and Sharon 2003, 34).”
Background
A Bone of Contention? Iron Age IIA Notched Scapulae from Tell eṣ-Ṣâfī/Gath, Israel
Zukerman, A., Lev-Tov, J. S. E., Horwitz, L. K., & Maeir, A. M. (2007) · Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research · doi:10.1086/basor25067022 · Cited by 12
The Iron Age Maritime Interface at the South Bay of Tel Dor: results from the 2016 and 2017 excavation seasons
Arkin-Shalev, E., Gilboa, A., & Yasur-Landau, A. (2019) · International Journal of Nautical Archaeology · doi:10.1111/1095-9270.12360 · Cited by 12
“Type BL31 bowls are found almost exclusively in Ir1b contexts at Dor, while Type BL33a bowls appear throughout the Early Iron Age; however, the form found here is dominant in Ir1b and Ir2a ceramic horizons (Gilboa and Sharon, 2003: 25, table 2).”
InfluentialSelf-citation
The forgotten kingdom: the archaeology and history of northern Israel
Finḳelshṭayn, Y. (2014) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.51-5759 · Cited by 62
Notes on Iron IIA14C Dates from Tell el-Qudeirat (Kadesh Barnea)
Gilboa, A., Jull, A. J. T., Sharon, I., & Boaretto, E. (2009) · Tel Aviv · doi:10.1179/204047809x439460 · Cited by 10
“The conventional dating of the beginning of Cypro-Geometric III is the mid-9th century, so accepting these dates would entail the up-dating of the beginning of this period to the second half of the 10th century BCE (cf. Gilboa and Sharon 2003: 67).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Oxygen isotope composition of Sparidae (sea bream) tooth enamel from well-dated archaeological sites as an environmental proxy in the East Mediterranean: A case study from Tel Dor, Israel
Sisma‐Ventura, G., Zohar, I., Sarkar, A., Bhattacharyya, K., Zidane, A., Gilboa, A., Bar‐Oz, G., & Sivan, D. (2015) · Journal of Archaeological Science · doi:10.1016/j.jas.2015.10.004 · Cited by 14
Self-citation
Cypriot Barrel Juglets at Khirbet Qeiyafa and other Sites in the Levant: Cultural Aspects and Chronological Implications
Gilboa, A. (2012) · Tel Aviv · doi:10.1179/033443512x13424449373669 · Cited by 11
“This horizon parallels CG III in Cyprus (Gilboa and Sharon 2003; Gilboa, Sharon and Boaretto 2008).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citation
Ancient texts and archaeology revisited – radiocarbon and Biblical dating in the southern Levant
Levy, T. E., Najjar, M., & Higham, T. (2010) · Antiquity · doi:10.1017/s0003598x00100250 · Cited by 7
“While a number of papers concerning radiocarbon dating and the south Levantine Iron Age had appeared before this (Gilboa & Sharon 2001; Mazar 2001), the paper published in Science (Bruins et al. 2003a; Finkelstein & Piasetzky 2003) concerning excavations at Tel Rehov in northern Israel marked a…”
Background
Between Israel and Phoenicia: The Iron IIA–B Fortified Purple-dye Production Centre at Tel Shiqmona
Shalvi, G., & Gilboa, A. (2023) · Tel Aviv · doi:10.1080/03344355.2023.2190283 · Cited by 11
“During most of the Iron Age, Tel Shiqmona’s inhabitants produced the lucrative purple dye—one of the most prized commodities of the ancient world (e.g., Marín-Aguilera, Iacono and Gleba 2019).1 This role explains the establishment of the site near a high rocky submerged reef, which endangered any boat approaching the…”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citation
Regional mineralogical and technological characterization of Cypriot Iron Age pottery: a view from Tel Dor
Waiman-Barak, P., Georgiadou, A., & Gilboa, A. (2021) · Levant · doi:10.1080/00758914.2021.1972609 · Cited by 9
“The general correlation of the Ir1|2 horizon with Late Proto-Geometric in Euboea is based on suggestions offered in, for example, Fantalkin et al. (2015: table 1), Gilboa and Sharon (2003), Kourou (2008) and Mazar and Kourou (2019: table 1).”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citation
A Late Iron IIA Destruction Layer at Tel Aphek in the Sharon Plain
Kleiman, A. (2015) · Tel Aviv · doi:10.1179/0334435515z.00000000054 · Cited by 9
“While many have recently claimed that imports from this group are restricted to late Iron IIA contexts (Gilboa and Sharon 2003: 62–64; Herzog and Singer-Avitz 2004: 218; Mazar et al. 2005: 242; Mazar 2006: 168), it seems that there is still room for a somewhat earlier date for its appearance (Arie…”
Background
Desert Habitation History by14C Dating of Soil Layers in Rural Building Structures (Negev, Israel): Preliminary Results from Horvat Haluqim
Bruins, H. J., van der Plicht, J., & Haiman, M. (2012) · Radiocarbon · doi:10.1017/s0033822200047160 · Cited by 8
“…example, done at Tell es-Sultan, Jericho (Bruins and van der Plicht 1995, 1998); Tel Rehov (Bruins et al. 2003a,b, 2005; Mazar 2005; Mazar et al. 2005); Tel Dor (Gilboa and Sharon 2001, 2003; Gilboa et al. 2009; Sharon et al. 2005); and Khirbet en-Nahas (Levy et al. 2004, 2008; Higham et al. 2005).”
Background
Early Iron Age Tombs in Northern Israel Revisited
Lehmann, G., & Varoner, O. (2018) · Tel Aviv · doi:10.1080/03344355.2018.1494785 · Cited by 9
“A detailed analysis of the fabric of Phoenician types demonstrated that some had been produced at Tyre while others had been manufactured on the Carmel coast in or near Dor (Gilboa and Goren 2015).”
BackgroundInfluential
Dor and Iron Age Chronology: Scarabs, Ceramic Sequence and 14C
Gilboa, A., Sharon, I., & Zorn, J. R. (2004) · Tel Aviv · doi:10.1179/tav.2004.2004.1.32 · Cited by 9
Self-citation
Pots, people, and politics : a reconsideration of the role of ceramics in reconstructions of the Iron Age Northern Levant
Whincop, M. R. (2009) · doi:10.30861/9781407303840 · Cited by 7
Quality Control of Groningen 14C Results from Tel Reḥov: Repeatability and intercomparison of Proportional Gas Counting and AMS
Levy, T., & Higham, T. (2014) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315711294-25 · Cited by 2
Hoofprints in the sand: A study on domestic sheep (Ovis aries) from Iron Age southern Phoenicia using traditional biometric methods
Harding, S., Vermeersch, S., Ujma, C., Deonarain, G., Susnow, M., Shafir, R., Gilboa, A., Lehmann, G., & Marom, N. (2023) · Quaternary International · doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2023.02.014 · Cited by 6
Self-citation
THE QARQUR CHALLENGE: Middle Islamic through Iron Age
Dornemann, R. H. (2012) · Near Eastern Archaeology · doi:10.5615/neareastarch.75.3.0162 · Cited by 7
Testing the Limits: Radiocarbon Dating and the End of the Late Bronze Age
Hagens, G. (2006) · Radiocarbon · doi:10.1017/s0033822200035414 · Cited by 5
“Note that although most these data were derived from charcoal that may have represented long-lived species, intercomparison with some analyses of olive pits suggests that old wood was not a significant factor (Gilboa and Sharon 2003: Table 22, RT-2960; 2961).”
Background
The Beth Shean Valley and its Vicinity in the 10th Century BCE
Mazar, A. (2021) · Jerusalem Journal of Archaeology · doi:10.52486/01.00001.10 · Cited by 4
“In any event, placing the Iron Age I/II transition at ca. 900 BCE or even later, in the first half of the 9th century (Gilboa and Sharon 2003), cannot be accepted, as recently stated: “It is by and large agreed that Iron Age IIA ‘covers’ a still debated portion of the second-half of the 10th…”
Background
Birds in Transition: Bird Exploitation in the Southern Levant During the Late Bronze Age, Iron Age I, and Iron Age II
Spiciarich, A. (2020) · Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research · doi:10.1086/707393 · Cited by 5
The Intermediate Bronze Age
Greenberg, R. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316275993.005 · Cited by 8
Chickens, Partridges, and the /tor/ of Ancient Israel and the Hebrew Bible
Altmann, P., & Spiciarich, A. (2020) · Die Welt des Orients · doi:10.13109/wdor.2020.50.1.2 · Cited by 2
Of Pots and Strata…: A Reply to "Kinneret and Early Iron Age Chronology" by E.A. Knauf
Münger, S. (2005) · doi:10.7892/boris.52445 · Cited by 3
Phoenicia, Carthage, and Popular Government in the Pre-Classical Mediterranean
Kaufman, B. (2025) · doi:10.1093/9780191904431.001.0001 · Cited by 2
The Colors of Power: An Outline of Purple Dye Production in the Iron Age Levant
Shalvi, G., & Gilboa, A. (2026) · Journal of Near Eastern Studies · doi:10.1086/743177 · Cited by 1
Self-citation
‘Keseph’: The Use of Silver Money in the Southern Levant from the Middle Bronze Age to the End of the Iron Age (~ 2000–600 BC)
Eshel, T. (2025) · Journal of World Prehistory · doi:10.1007/s10963-025-09191-7
The contribution of Mediterranean connectivity to morphological variability in Iron Age sheep of the Eastern Mediterranean
Harding, S., Hadjikoumis, A., Vermeersch, S., Shafir, R., & Marom, N. (2024) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/2022.12.24.521859 · Cited by 1
To Build or Not to Build: Considerations of Coastal Development in the Ancient Southern Levant
Gambash, G. (2024) · Journal of Marine Science and Engineering · doi:10.3390/jmse12050803 · Cited by 1
Phoenicians and Greeks as Comparable Contemporary Migrant Groups
Garnand, B. (2020) · doi:10.1002/9781118341339.ch8 · Cited by 1
Urbanism and Its Demise in the Early Bronze II and III
Greenberg, R. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316275993.004 · Cited by 2
Written words
Hutt, P. (2006) · British medical journal · doi:10.1136/bmj.333.7566.s86 · Cited by 1
Dor, the Carmel Coast and the Earliest Phoenician Maritime Ventures
Gilboa, A. (2024) · Die Welt des Orients · doi:10.13109/wdor.2024.54.1.59
Self-citation
Local amphorae from the Tyrian cemetery of al-Bass: typology, chronology, function and Mediterranean connections
Calvo, F. J. N. (2021) · Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean · doi:10.31338/uw.2083-537x.pam30.2.25
Conclusions
Hodos, T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9780511979316.008
Urbanisation
Proudhon, P., Kropotkin, P., Bakunin, M., Herzen, A., & Tolstoy, L. (2020) · The Archaeology of the Mediterranean Iron Age · doi:10.1787/9789264040502-7-fr
Chronologies and Histories
Hodos, T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9780511979316.003
Interpreting the Mediterranean
Hodos, T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9780511979316.002
Contacts and Exchanges
Hodos, T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9780511979316.005
Villages and the Growth of Social Power in the Early Bronze I
Greenberg, R. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316275993.003
The Late Bronze Age
Greenberg, R. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316275993.007
Conclusion
Greenberg, R. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316275993.008
Introduction
Greenberg, R. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316275993.002 · Cited by 1
Index
Greenberg, R. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316275993.010
Preface
Greenberg, R. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316275993.001
Bibliography
(2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316275993.009
Villages, Manors and Integrated City-States of the Middle Bronze Age
Greenberg, R. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316275993.006 · Cited by 1
Bibliographie
(2013) · Odile Jacob eBooks · doi:10.3917/oj.finke.2013.01.0253

Authors: Gilboa, A., & Sharon, I.
ORCID: Gilboa, Ayelet
Sharon, Ilan
Venue: Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research
Publisher: University of Chicago Press
Published: 2003-11
Volume: 332
Pages: 7-80
ISSN: 0003-097X (ISSN-L)
2161-8062
DOI: 10.2307/1357808
OpenAlex: W2329004667
Cited by: 141
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 1 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 11 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 1 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 7 · 2013: 7 · 2012: 5
FWCI: 39.50
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology (arts and humanities) › Ancient Mediterranean Archaeology and History
Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Religious studies › Biblical Studies and Interpretation
Social Sciences › Archeology › Archaeology and ancient environmental studies
Keywords: ceramic sequence, radiocarbon dating, Tel Dor, Southern Levant, Cyprus, Phoenician trade, absolute chronology, biblical chronology

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An Archaeological Contribution to the Early Iron Age Chronological Debate: Alternative Chronologies for Phoenicia and Their Effects on the Levant, Cyprus, and Greece

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