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A Theory of Role Strain
Abstract
levels, for example, the conditions of small experimental groups as a subtype of social system. Only in so far as codification reveals uniformities in the cognate features of many different types of operationally studied system do the more general theorems have a prospect of approaching rigorous empirical verification. This specification should not be assumed to be capable of being carried out by simple common sense; it requires careful technical analysis through a series of concatenated steps. I believe, however, that the theory of action in its present state provides methods for successfully carrying out this specification, and conversely, generalization as well from lower-level uniformities to higher levels. Perhaps the most important key to this possibility is the conception of all systems of action as systematically articulated with others along system-subsystem lines. The basic system types designated here as organisms, personalities, social systems, and cultural systems must be regarded as subsystems of the general category of action system. Each of these in turn is differentiated into further subsystems at different levels of elaboration. Any subsystem is articulated with other subsystems by definable categories of input-output interchange, the processes, in sufficiently highly differentiated subsystems, being mediated by symbolictype mechanisms such as those discussed above. In many respects, this possibility of dealing with multiple system references and of ke ping straight the distinctions and articulations between them, has turned out to be the greatest enrichment of theoretical analysis developed from Dubin's Model II. A flat conception of a single system reference which must be accepted or rejected on an all-or-none basis for the analysis of complex empirical problems, cannot possibly do justice to the formidable difficulties in the study of human action.
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“According to the scarcity hypothesis, role conflict arises when time and resources are limited and an individual faces conflicting expectation across different roles (46).”
From Caring alone: older adult care burdens, practices, and structural imbalances among China's one-child generation (2025) · cites this paper as [46]
In the citing paper
“Role conflict generates stress, as resources become scarce or depleted while trying to balance multiple roles. This can negatively affect caregivers’ psychological well-being, physical health, and financial stability (26, 46, 47).”
From Caring alone: older adult care burdens, practices, and structural imbalances among China's one-child generation (2025) · cites this paper as [46]
In the citing paper
“In contrast, the experience of cultural conflict (i.e., feeling caught or trapped between one's two cultural orientations) has not been explicitly acknowledged in the acculturation literature, even though this component may be similar to identity confusion (Baumister, 1986) or role conflict (Goode, 1960).”
From Bicultural Identity Integration (BII): Components and Psychosocial Antecedents (2005) · cites this paper as Goode, 1960
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“Fortune interpreted her data as support ive of an "expansion" model (Marks, 1977; Sieber, 1974) of how multiple roles relate to stress: Benefits in self-esteem, emotional support, and distraction accrue to those with multiple roles, thus offsetting any difficulties associated with a "scarci ty" of time/energy resource…”
MethodWorking and non‐working mothers: a comparative study
Rout, U. R., Cooper, C. L., & Kerslake, H. (1997) · Women in Management Review · doi:10.1108/09649429710181234 · Cited by 40
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Myers, M. F. (1984) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.141.11.1386 · Cited by 35
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“To understand the issues concerning the balance between work and family, researchers have often focused on the negative perspective, that is, conflict perspective—primarily laid upon the scarcity hypothesis (Goode, 1960).”
BackgroundWang, Y., Hsu, W., Yang, P., Yao, G., Chiu, Y., Chen, S.-T., Huang, T., & Shyu, Y. L. (2018) · Geriatric Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.gerinurse.2018.05.003 · Cited by 34
Boz, M., Martínez-Corts, I., & Munduate, L. (2015) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-015-0461-5 · Cited by 37
Parenting stressors and morning cortisol in a sample of working mothers.
Hibel, L. C., Mercado, E., & Trumbell, J. M. (2012) · Journal of Family Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0029340 · Cited by 34
“Work-family researchers have long recognized the role strain and conflict (e.g., Goode, 1960) and lower psychological well-being (Coverman, 1989) that arises when roles pose excessive demands.”
BackgroundKim, Y., Kashy, D. A., & Evans, T. V. (2007) · Journal of Cancer Survivorship · doi:10.1007/s11764-007-0011-4 · Cited by 34
Single Mothers of Children with Developmental Disabilities: The Impact of Multiple Roles
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Bozett, F. W. (1981) · Journal of Family and Economic Issues · doi:10.1007/bf01082090 · Cited by 34
Profiles in health: multiple roles and health lifestyles in early adulthood
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Managing Work and Family Demands: The Perspectives of Employed Parents in Ghana
Annor, F. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-01237-7_2 · Cited by 34
“Consistent with the role scarcity argument (Goode 1960; Kahn et al. 1964), it was evident that for many employed parents in Ghana participation in multiple roles of work and family was a source of strain and conflict.”
BackgroundInfluentialImpact of workplace characteristics on work-family conflict of dual-career couples
Kundu, S. C., Phogat, R. S., Datta, S. K., & Gahlawat, N. (2016) · International journal of organizational analysis · doi:10.1108/ijoa-01-2015-0840 · Cited by 37
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Pasamar, S., Johnston, K., & Tanwar, J. (2020) · Employee Relations · doi:10.1108/er-06-2019-0237 · Cited by 39
Badawy, P. J., & Schieman, S. (2020) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.1177/0022146520942897 · Cited by 37
“The stress process model and the “scarcity” ideas embedded in role strain theory (Goode 1960) emphasize that involvement in work and family roles persists over time—which implies that stressful experiences within these roles can become repeated or enduring features of everyday life (Pearlin 1989).”
BackgroundJob-Family Role Strain among Employed Single Mothers of Preschoolers
Campbell, M. L., & Moen, P. (1992) · Family Relations · doi:10.2307/584834 · Cited by 33
“Role theory implies that single mothers assuming the provider role as well as the homemaker role would experience strain, given their lack of time to fulfill multiple role expectations (Burr, Leigh, Day, & Constantine, 1979; Goode, 1960).”
BackgroundIdentity and Commitment to the Teacher Role
Snyder, E. E., & Spreitzer, E. A. (1984) · Teaching Sociology · doi:10.2307/1317515 · Cited by 33
Mazerolle, S. M., Pitney, W. A., & Eason, C. M. (2015) · Journal of Athletic Training · doi:10.4085/1062-6050-50.4.02 · Cited by 33
“Role overload is a form of role conflict, and WLC often has been described as a facet of role conflict.(31) Athletic trainers in the collegiate setting experience role overload; Brumels and Beach(13) reported that 38% experienced moderate to high levels of stress from role overload, a factor likely due to long work ho…”
BackgroundDaatland, S. O., Veenstra, M., & Lima, I. A. (2010) · European Journal of Ageing · doi:10.1007/s10433-010-0163-3 · Cited by 34
The Paradox of Legitimacy: Physician Executives and the Practice of Medicine
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Unger, D., Sonnentag, S., Niessen, C., & Kuonath, A. (2015) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/0018726715571188 · Cited by 35
“Because time is finite (Goode, 1960), spending much time in one domain (e.”
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Barter, M., McLaughlin, F. E., & Thomas, S. A. (1997) · JONA The Journal of Nursing Administration · doi:10.1097/00005110-199701000-00008 · Cited by 33
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“…been known that family care-givers (especially women) are more likely to report physical ( i.e. exhaustion and fatigue) and mental health problems ( i.e. distress and anger), and feeling burdened and strained than non-care-givers (Goode, 1960; Vitaliano et al ., 2003; Pinquart and Sörensen, 2006).”
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“The origin of the concept of negative spillover stems from the role scarcity hypothesis (Goode, 1960).”
BackgroundWork-to-family and family-to-work conflicts among employed single parents in Germany
Reimann, M., Marx, C. K., & Diewald, M. (2019) · Equality Diversity and Inclusion An International Journal · doi:10.1108/edi-02-2019-0057 · Cited by 32
Hiekel, N., & Kühn, M. (2022) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.1177/00221465221109195 · Cited by 32
“Role strain tends to occur when parents experience pressure to engage in contradictory activities, and thus experience conflicts of time, place, or resource allocation (Goode 1960: p.483).”
BackgroundAcculturation and Individualism as Predictors of Work‐Family Conflict in a Diverse Workforce
Olson, K. J., Huffman, A. H., Leiva, P. I., & Culbertson, S. S. (2013) · Human Resource Management · doi:10.1002/hrm.21559 · Cited by 32
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Exploring occupational differences in work–family interaction: Who is at risk?
Innstrand, S. T., Langballe, E. M., & Falkum, E. (2010) · International Journal of Stress Management · doi:10.1037/a0018565 · Cited by 32
“Similarly, derived from a scarcity perspective (Goode, 1960), most research has focused on the construct of work–family conflict (for a review, see Casper, Eby, Bordeaux, Lockwood, & Lambert, 2007), resulting in a one-sided and negative view of WFIs (Voydanoff, 2004).”
BackgroundRole Strain and Ease in Decision‐Making to Withdraw or Withhold Life Support for Elderly Relatives
Hansen, L., Archbold, P. G., & Stewart, B. J. (2004) · Journal of Nursing Scholarship · doi:10.1111/j.1547-5069.2004.04043.x · Cited by 32
Development and initial validation of the Role Strain Questionnaire for Junior Athletes (RSQ-JA)
van Rens, F. E. C. A., Borkoles, E., Farrow, D., Curran, T., & Polman, R. C. J. (2016) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2016.02.004 · Cited by 37
“Role strain emerged from research in the workplace where it was defined as “the felt difficulty in fulfilling role obligations” (Goode, 1960, p. 483).”
BackgroundDePasquale, N., Mogle, J. A., Zarit, S. H., Okechukwu, C. A., Kossek, E. E., & Almeida, D. M. (2017) · The Gerontologist · doi:10.1093/geront/gnw191 · Cited by 39
Lee, B., Lawson, K. M., Chang, P.-J., Neuendorf, C., Dmitrieva, N., & Almeida, D. (2015) · Journal of Leisure Research · doi:10.1080/00222216.2015.11950370 · Cited by 32
“Two research questions were addressed: (1) Are changes in workfamily spillover associated with change in physical health over a nine-year span?, and (2) Does LTPA moderate the associations between changes in work-family spillover and changes in physical health? Based on the work and family role conflict perspective (G…”
BackgroundInfluentialSamuel‐Hodge, C. D., Skelly, A. H., Headen, S. W., et al. (2005) · PubMed · Cited by 32
Multiple Roles, Stress and Well-Being among MSW Students
Fortune, A. E. (1987) · Journal of Social Work Education · doi:10.1080/10437797.1987.10672088 · Cited by 32
East, P. L. (1999) · Journal of Marriage and the Family · doi:10.2307/353750 · Cited by 32
“This is consistent with role strain theory, which states that multiple roles are inherently stressful and detracts from one's ability to perform well in any role (Goode, 1960).”
BackgroundWho Gains Mental Health Benefits from Work Autonomy? The Roles of Gender and Occupational Class
Lu, Z., Wang, S., Li, Y., Liu, X., & Olsen, W. K. (2023) · Applied Research in Quality of Life · doi:10.1007/s11482-023-10161-4 · Cited by 36
“According to role strain theory (Goode, 1960), individuals’ multiple social roles compete for finite resources (i.e., time and energy) and are frequently conflicting with each other (Aryee, 1992).”
BackgroundMaternal Employment and Parenting Through Middle Childhood: Contextualizing Factors
Buehler, C. A., O’Brien, M., Swartout, K. M., & Zhou, N. (2014) · Journal of Marriage and the Family · doi:10.1111/jomf.12130 · Cited by 32
“Becker, 1981; Parsons, 1949) and the scarcity hypothesis (Goode, 1960) are obsolete given current empirical findings.”
Carvalho, V. S., & Chambel, M. J. (2017) · Armed Forces & Society · doi:10.1177/0095327x17698121 · Cited by 31
“The roots of WFC are based on a scarcity hypothesis (Goode, 1960) defending that an individual has limited resources such as energy, time, and attention to spend on life roles.”
BackgroundWork-personal life conflict and burnout in contact centers
Geraldes, D., Madeira, E. F. C., Carvalho, V. S., & Chambel, M. J. (2018) · Personnel Review · doi:10.1108/pr-11-2017-0352 · Cited by 42
Gender differences in depressive symptoms of rural Chinese grandparents caring for grandchildren
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Bowman, P. J. (2012) · Plenum series on human exceptionality · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-4939-3_21 · Cited by 31
Perceptual correlates of physician referral to physical therapists: Implications for role expansion
Ritchey, F. J., Pinkston, D., Goldbaum, J. E., et al. (1989) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/0277-9536(89)90308-0 · Cited by 31
Presidential Address: Some Problems in Role Analysis
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Kopp, M., Lindauer, M., & Garthus‐Niegel, S. (2023) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-023-02164-1 · Cited by 41
“In the end, resulting overload and stress could lead to poorer maternal health [21].”
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“Both professional and family caregiving entail emotion regulation, likely constituting a substantial portion of caregiving responsibilities in both domains and pitting triple-duty caregivers’ three caregiving roles against one another for scarce energy (Goode, 1960).”
Nonstandard Work Hours and Single Versus Coupled Mothers' Work‐to‐Family Conflict
Moilanen, S., Aunola, K., May, V., Sevón, E., & Laakso, M. (2019) · Family Relations · doi:10.1111/fare.12353 · Cited by 30
“As a result of WFC, role strain is possible, which in this context refers to a mother’s feelings of not having enough time for family activities or household responsibilities because of work (Goode, 1960).”
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Rogiers, P., Stobbeleir, K. E. M. D., & Viaene, S. (2020) · Academy of Management Discoveries · doi:10.5465/amd.2019.0093 · Cited by 32
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“Furthermore, self-stigma also indirectly associated with D-QoL through role strain and diabetes distress, which was coherent with a previous study (Gredig & Bartelsen-Raemy, 2017).”
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“The association between work-family conflict and job performance can be explained by using Role Theory and scarcity of resources hypothesis, which proposed that demands of one role deplete personal resources, such as time and physical or mental energy, leaving insufficient resources to allocate to other roles (Edwards…”
BackgroundReturn to work after prolonged maternity leave. An interpretative description
Costantini, A., Warasin, R., Sartori, R., & Mantovan, F. (2022) · Women s Studies International Forum · doi:10.1016/j.wsif.2022.102562 · Cited by 41
Role strain in occupational therapy fieldwork educators
Barton, R., Corban, A., Herrli-Warner, L., McClain, E., Riehle, D., & Tinner, E. (2013) · Work · doi:10.3233/wor-121508 · Cited by 30
“Role strain is a concept de-fi ned by Goode as the “dif fi culty in ful fi lling role obli-gations” [8, p. 483].”
Work–Family Conflict, Resources, and Role Set Density
Kulik, L., & Liberman, G. (2013) · Journal of Career Development · doi:10.1177/0894845312467500 · Cited by 30
“There are two competing theoretical approaches that deal with the impact of multiple roles on women’s wellbeing: ‘‘role scarcity theory’’ (Goode, 1960), and ‘‘role expansion theory’’ (Marks, 1977).”
The health consequences of multiple roles at older ages in the UK
Glaser, K., Evandrou, M., & Tomassini, C. (2005) · Health & Social Care in the Community · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2524.2005.00574.x · Cited by 30
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“Goode (1960) explicitly addressed this scarcity assumption when he introduced the term ’role strain’ to demonstrate the difficulty in managing multiple roles.”
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“Furthermore, role theory asserts that ideals, values, and role responsibilities are inevitably in conflict over the distribution of one’s limited resources (e.g., time, emotions, material goods; Goode, 1960).”
BackgroundZielyk, I. V. (1966) · The Pacific Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/1388307 · Cited by 24
Liu, B., Wang, Q., Wu, G., Zheng, J., & Li, L. (2020) · Construction Management and Economics · doi:10.1080/01446193.2020.1748892 · Cited by 34
“The conflict perspective derives from a scarcity hypothesis, which suggests that personal resources are limited (Goode 1960), and the investment of resources in one role would lead to the depletion of resources in the other role (ten Brummelhuis and Bakker 2012).”
BackgroundYang, X., & Yin, D. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19031255 · Cited by 31
“According to the theory of role strain, grandparents, as bearers of different roles, have multiple social role conflicts due to the opposition of role interests, and the difference of role expectations [23].”
BackgroundSpiers, M. V., Geller, P. A., & Kloss, J. D. (2013) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781394260454 · Cited by 29
The Depressive Symptomatology of Parent Care Among the Near Elderly
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Denby, R. W. (2012) · Social Work in Public Health · doi:10.1080/19371918.2012.639639 · Cited by 30
“Goode (1960) postulated that strain is produced by lack of resources to enact the role.”
BackgroundWarner, M. A., & Hausdorf, P. A. (2009) · Organization Management Journal · doi:10.1057/omj.2009.19 · Cited by 29
“From a scarcity hypothesis perspective (Goode, 1960), high work demands require more of a individual’s resources (i.e., time and emotional) being allocated to work with fewer resources left for family (Frone et al., 1997b; Carlson and Kacmar, 2000).”
BackgroundParent Care in the Context of Women's Multiple Roles
Stephens, M. A. P., & Franks, M. M. (1999) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00035 · Cited by 29
“The competing-demands hypothesis rests on assumptions similar to those of the scarcity hypothesis, which assumes that individuals have limited personal resources, and that social organizations and role partners demand all of these resources (Goode, 1960).”
BackgroundMånsdotter, A., & Lundin, A. (2010) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.05.008 · Cited by 29
“The hypothesis of stress holds that individuals with many roles experience more stress, conflict, and ill-health since the primary life role, for men supporting duties and for women caring duties, is so hard that additional roles risk lifetime health (Goode, 1960).”
BackgroundRoles and well‐being among healthy women and women with rheumatoid arthritis
Coty, M., & Wallston, K. A. (2008) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2648.2008.04661.x · Cited by 29
“role stress is an expected consequence of multiple roles (Goode 1960).”
BackgroundWork-Life Balance Perspectives of Male NCAA Division I Athletic Trainers: Strategies and Antecedents
Mazerolle, S. M., Eason, C. M., & Trisdale, W. A. (2015) · Athletic Training & Sports Health Care · doi:10.3928/19425864-20150216-01 · Cited by 29
Do work and family care histories predict health in older women?
Benson, R., Glaser, K., Corna, L., Platts, L. G., Gessa, G. D., Worts, D., Price, D., McDonough, P., & Sacker, A. (2017) · European Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckx128 · Cited by 29
Half a Century of Work–Nonwork Interface Research: A Review and Taxonomy of Terminologies
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“The most frequently used theoretical perspective was role theory and its extensions: role strain theory (Goode, 1960; Kahn et al., 1964), role expansion/accumulation theory”
BackgroundSports Counseling: Enhancing the Development of the High School Student‐Athlete
Goldberg, A. D., & CHANDLER, T. J. L. (1995) · Journal of Counseling & Development · doi:10.1002/j.1556-6676.1995.tb01820.x · Cited by 29
Twaddle, A. C. (1973) · Social Science & Medicine (1967) · doi:10.1016/0037-7856(73)90117-0 · Cited by 29
Campaniello, J. A. (1988) · Journal of Professional Nursing · doi:10.1016/s8755-7223(88)80037-1 · Cited by 29
Some demographic, personality, and role variables as correlates of women's well-being
Noor, N. M. (1996) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/bf01551497 · Cited by 29
Work life balance and job satisfaction among faculty at Iowa State University
Mukhtar, F. (2012) · doi:10.31274/etd-180810-3679 · Cited by 29
“Typically, many individuals assume balance is a gendered concept (Aburdene & Naisbitt, 1992; English, 2003; Goode, 1960; Stephens, 1994) that applies only to women.”
BackgroundIdentity and Acculturation Processes in Multicultural Societies
Stathi, S., & Roscini, C. (2016) · Peace psychology book series · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-29869-6_4 · Cited by 30
Wang, Y., & Gonzales, E. G. (2019) · China Journal of Social Work · doi:10.1080/17525098.2019.1591697 · Cited by 28
“It is also assumed that individuals have limited personal resources, such as time and energy, to fulfil their various social roles (Goode 1960).”
BackgroundAuthority and camaraderie: The delivery of directives amongst the ice floes
White, A. E. C. (2019) · Language in Society · doi:10.1017/s0047404519000721 · Cited by 28
“Outdoor recreational guides facilitate excursions for paying clients, and guides experience role strain (Goode 1960) within this identity as their work entails conflicting objectives.”
BackgroundWayne, J. H., Mills, M. J., Wang, Y., Matthews, R. A., & Whitman, M. V. (2023) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-023-09887-7 · Cited by 40
“This possibility is consistent with the challenge and hindrance model of stress (Cavanaugh et al., 2000) and the scarcity (Goode, 1960) and enrichment perspectives of multiple roles (Wayne et al., 2007), which we use to guide our hypotheses.”
BackgroundMethodLost opportunities: How gendered arrangements harm men
Bareket, O., & Fiske, S. T. (2025) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2320788122 · Cited by 34
How Self-Perceptions of Identity Change in Person, Role, and Social Identities Relate to Depression
Carter, M. J. (2017) · Identity · doi:10.1080/15283488.2017.1379908 · Cited by 20
“Classic research in sociology has noted the overdemanding nature of developing and accumulating identities (Coser, 1974; Goode, 1960; Slater, 1963), emphasizing that negative outcomes can emerge when one must balance the demands of competing identities.”
BackgroundToo Many Hats? The Role of Police Officers in Drug Enforcement and the Community
Zakimi, N., Greer, A., & Butler, A. (2021) · Policing A Journal of Policy and Practice · doi:10.1093/police/paab082 · Cited by 28
BRENNING, K. M., Mabbe, E., & Soenens, B. (2022) · Community Work & Family · doi:10.1080/13668803.2022.2037517 · Cited by 31
“Work–family conflict arises when work and family are mutually incompatible in some respect, often due to limits in a person’s time and energy (Goode, 1960).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Goode, W. J.
- Affiliations
- Columbia University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Goode, William J.
- Venue
- American Sociological Review
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 1960-08
- Volume
- 25
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 483
- ISSN
- 0003-1224 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1976793337
- Cited by
- 2,454
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 143 · 2025: 130 · 2024: 96 · 2023: 87 · 2022: 106 · 2021: 104 · 2020: 92 · 2019: 83 · 2018: 113 · 2017: 73 · 2016: 88 · 2015: 107 · 2014: 98 · 2013: 97 · 2012: 81
- FWCI
- 27.15
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Sociological Review (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Contemporary Sociological Theory and Practice
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social Power and Status Dynamics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Weber, Simmel, Sociological Theory
- Keywords
- role strain, philosophy of action, action systems, subsystems, social systems, organism, personality, cultural systems, symbolic mechanisms, levels of analysis, generalization
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