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A Theory of Role Strain
Abstract
levels, for example, the conditions of small experimental groups as a subtype of social system. Only in so far as codification reveals uniformities in the cognate features of many different types of operationally studied system do the more general theorems have a prospect of approaching rigorous empirical verification. This specification should not be assumed to be capable of being carried out by simple common sense; it requires careful technical analysis through a series of concatenated steps. I believe, however, that the theory of action in its present state provides methods for successfully carrying out this specification, and conversely, generalization as well from lower-level uniformities to higher levels. Perhaps the most important key to this possibility is the conception of all systems of action as systematically articulated with others along system-subsystem lines. The basic system types designated here as organisms, personalities, social systems, and cultural systems must be regarded as subsystems of the general category of action system. Each of these in turn is differentiated into further subsystems at different levels of elaboration. Any subsystem is articulated with other subsystems by definable categories of input-output interchange, the processes, in sufficiently highly differentiated subsystems, being mediated by symbolictype mechanisms such as those discussed above. In many respects, this possibility of dealing with multiple system references and of ke ping straight the distinctions and articulations between them, has turned out to be the greatest enrichment of theoretical analysis developed from Dubin's Model II. A flat conception of a single system reference which must be accepted or rejected on an all-or-none basis for the analysis of complex empirical problems, cannot possibly do justice to the formidable difficulties in the study of human action.
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“According to the scarcity hypothesis, role conflict arises when time and resources are limited and an individual faces conflicting expectation across different roles (46).”
From Caring alone: older adult care burdens, practices, and structural imbalances among China's one-child generation (2025) · cites this paper as [46]
In the citing paper
“Role conflict generates stress, as resources become scarce or depleted while trying to balance multiple roles. This can negatively affect caregivers’ psychological well-being, physical health, and financial stability (26, 46, 47).”
From Caring alone: older adult care burdens, practices, and structural imbalances among China's one-child generation (2025) · cites this paper as [46]
In the citing paper
“In contrast, the experience of cultural conflict (i.e., feeling caught or trapped between one's two cultural orientations) has not been explicitly acknowledged in the acculturation literature, even though this component may be similar to identity confusion (Baumister, 1986) or role conflict (Goode, 1960).”
From Bicultural Identity Integration (BII): Components and Psychosocial Antecedents (2005) · cites this paper as Goode, 1960
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Recent Developments in Role Theory
Biddle, B. J. (1986) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev.so.12.080186.000435 · Cited by 2,358
“Some years ago Goode ( 1960) suggested that role strain was endemic in complex social systems and provided a positive force that promoted system evolution.”
BackgroundIdentity Processes and Social Stress
Burke, P. J. (1991) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2096259 · Cited by 1,762
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Sieber, S. D. (1974) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2094422 · Cited by 1,722
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“Third, because of the high contrast in segmented role identities, it is easier to psychologically compartmentalize the identities (Ashforth & Mael, 1989; Goode, 1960; Nippert-Eng, 1996b).”
BackgroundBicultural Identity Integration (BII): Components and Psychosocial Antecedents
Benet‐Martínez, V., & Haritatos, J. (2005) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00337.x · Cited by 1,384
“, feeling caught or trapped between one’s two cultural orientations) has not been explicitly acknowledged in the acculturation literature, even though this component may be similar to identity confusion (Baumister, 1986) or role conflict (Goode, 1960).”
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“The concept of role strain, which states that too many roles may place a burden on the person resulting in negative effects (Goode, 1960), has also received some empirical support.”
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“occupying multiple roles has the potential to create conflicting and overwhelming demands for an individual’s behavior (Goode, 1960), overall, studies on multiple roles have indicated that a larger number of role-identities is associated with better”
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Ruderman, M. N., Ohlott, P. J., Panzer, K., & King, S. N. (2002) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.2307/3069352 · Cited by 727
“This role scarcity argument (Goode, 1960) is that each person has a fixed sum of energy to spend.”
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“Although much of the current role theory literature pre-supposes that role strain is avoided by prioritizing some roles over others, Marks and MacDermid (1996) remind us that the notion of hierarchically organized roles is a theoretical assumption (Goode, 1960), not an empirical fact.”
BackgroundThe potential paradox of organizational citizenship behavior: Good citizens at what cost?
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“Even if some individuals do have a sense that task performance is worth more, the way in which they allocate their time may not be a purely rational and intentional decision—many decisions are frequently habitual rather than calculated and, thus, may not be made at a conscious level (Goode, 1960).”
BackgroundMultiple Identities: Examining Gender and Marital Status Differences in Distress
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“Consistent with the role strain hypothesis within role theory [54], work–family conflict can be defined as: “a form of inter-role conflict in which the role pressures from the work and family domains are mutually incompatible in some respect.”
BackgroundEthnic Minorities And Mental Health
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“145) .368* (.144) .169 (.109) .162 (.104) —Visits with friends, 1975 .109* (.044) .109* (.043) .032 (.033) .003 (.031) —Family earnings, 1974/100 .866** (.197) .839*** (.196) .403** (.149) .270 (.141) Combined measure of —volunteering 1975–1992 (VOL) 3.813*** (.948) 3.699*** (.945) 1.580* (.717) 1.395* (.679) Integrat…”
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“…strain theory have defined role strain as the felt difficulty in meeting role demands in the context of a total role system that is overdemanding (Goode, 1960), the stress created when a person has difficulty complying with role expectations (Burr et al., 1979), and worries about adequately…”
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“are the scarcity hypothesis (Goode, 1960) and the”
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“As a result, managers are likely to assume that employees’ personal-life investments deplete the resources available for work (Becker, 1985; Goode, 1960; Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985), and”
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“Although multiple role occupancy was, in early work, linked to the experience of overload, conflicting demands, and psychological distress (Coser, 1974; Goode, 1960), recent analyses have emphasized the positive consequences of multiple role involvement (Marks, 1977; Sieber, 1974; Thoits, 1983, 1986).”
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“It has its origins in the work of Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, and Rosenthal’s (1964) discussion of role theory and is related to Goode’s (1960) claim that multiple roles create strain.”
Nohe, C., Meier, L. L., Sonntag, K., & Michel, A. (2014) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0038012 · Cited by 354
“…role theory and the scarcity of resources hypothesis, which proposes that demands of one role deplete personal resources, such as time and physical or mental energy, thereby leaving insufficient resources to allocate to activities in other roles (Edwards & Rothbard, 2000; Goode, 1960; Marks, 1977).”
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1 – Role Strains and Personal Stress
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“One significant stressor, which overlaps with the concept of time pressure is subjective role overload (Goode 1960; Sieber 1974; Vanfossen 1981; Barnett and Baruch 1985; Voydanoff and Donnelly 1999).”
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“Other scholars, however, suggest that as the multiplicity of identities increases, individuals are likely to experience role conflicts and overload that are not as neatly resolved as Stryker and colleagues would suggest (Goode, 1960; Merton, 1957; Wiesenfeld & Hewlin, 2003).”
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“The scarcity approach (Goode 1960) suggests that time and energy are fixed and employees participating in multiple roles experience conflict between roles due to unavailability of resources for participation in a role.”
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“Too much conflict among multiple roles can be associated with stress (Goode, 1960); yet having more social roles typically has beneficial consequences, since it may enable the individual to have access to more social support, thus reducing a person’s vulnerability to stress (Linville, 1987).”
BackgroundBeyond Work-Life “Integration”
Williams, J. C., Berdahl, J. L., & Vandello, J. A. (2015) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-122414-033710 · Cited by 258
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“People‘s valued resources, including their own energies, are finite (Hobfoll, 1989; Baumeister et al., 1998), and when these resources are divided among multiple roles, it may lead to depletion (Goode, 1960; Thoits, 1991; Rothbard, 2001).”
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Policeman as philosopher, guide and friend.
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“According to the scarcity argument in role theory (Goode 1960), a person has a limited amount of resources and energy to spend.”
BackgroundSocial Integration and Longevity: An Event History Analysis of Women's Roles and Resilience
Moen, P., Dempster‐McClain, D., & Williams, R. M. (1989) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2095884 · Cited by 236
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“…and home domains is because of his inability to manage the resources (ten Brummelhuis and Bakker 2012) as the resources are finite (Becker 1965; Goode 1960), and it becomes difficult to manage and fulfill the obligations effectively at both work and homewith limited resources (Greenhaus and…”
BackgroundCourtright, S. H., Gardner, R. G., Smith, T. A., McCormick, B. W., & Colbert, A. E. (2015) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/amj.2013.1009 · Cited by 243
“The theory is based on three fundamental concepts that, prior to Rothbard and colleagues’ theoretical work, largely existed as separate concepts in the literature: (1) resource scarcity (Goode, 1960), (2) interrole conflict (Greenhaus &Beutell, 1985) and (3) ego depletion (Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Muraven, & Tice, 199…”
BackgroundWayne, J. H., Casper, W. J., Matthews, R. A., & Allen, T. D. (2013) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0032491 · Cited by 262
“Whereas the strain (Goode, 1960) and enhancement (Marks, 1977) perspectives suggest that work-to-family conflict and enrichment are primary employee mechanisms that link FSOP and employee commitment, the systems perspective (Bronfenbrenner, 1989) suggests that this view is incomplete.”
BackgroundInfluentialNetwork-Related Personality and the Agency Question: Multirole Evidence from a Virtual World
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“Merton’s (1957) analysis of role-sets describes mechanisms for managing conflicts between combined roles, and Goode (1960), often arguing parallel to Merton, discussed sources of role strain and its management.”
BackgroundPersonal Agency in the Accumulation of Multiple Role-Identities
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Commitment to family roles: Effects on managers' attitudes and performance.
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Shammas, V. L. (2014) · Punishment & Society · doi:10.1177/1462474513504799 · Cited by 224
“…confusion over roles, and below it is described how the inmate role enters into conflict with the role of wage-earner and of autonomous intellectual, and how role strain (Goode, 1960) – in which inmates have trouble balancing dual and contradictory commitments – enters into each of these areas.”
BackgroundCouples' Work/Retirement Transitions, Gender, and Marital Quality
Moen, P., Kim, J. E., & Hofmeister, H. (2001) · Social Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.2307/3090150 · Cited by 224
“From this perspective, both timing of retirement and employment after retirement are part of strategic household decision making (Moen and Wethington 1992) that has consequences for couples’ role repertoire (Menaghan 1989).”
BackgroundWork characteristics and incidence of type 2 diabetes in women.
Kroenke, C. H., Spiegelman, D., Manson, J., Schernhammer, E. S., Colditz, G. A., & Kawachi, I. (2006) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwj355 · Cited by 220
“Goode’s role strain (40) perspective suggests that role combinations of work and family may be detrimental to women’s well-being, introducing competing demands on time, energy, and involvement.”
BackgroundDaily Stress Recognition from Mobile Phone Data, Weather Conditions and Individual Traits
Bogomolov, A., Lepri, B., Ferron, M., Pianesi, F., & Pentland, A. (. (2014) · Proceedings of the 22nd ACM international conference on Multimedia · doi:10.1145/2647868.2654933 · Cited by 217
“…of the sample in terms of provenance and cultural background (in our sample we have subjects from 16 countries and from all the continents), which can be expected to correspond to a wide palette of interaction behaviors that efficaciously counterbalance the effects of living-place homogeneity.”
BackgroundThe Effects of Multiple Identities on Psychological Well-Being
Brook, A. T., García, J. A., & Fleming, M. A. (2008) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167208324629 · Cited by 212
“Other research suggests a negative relationship (Coser, 1974; Goode, 1960; Menaghan, 1989; Merton, 1957), arguing that multiple identities conflict or compete with one another for limited resources.”
BackgroundRoehling, P. V., Roehling, M. V., & Moen, P. (2001) · Journal of Family and Economic Issues · doi:10.1023/a:1016630229628 · Cited by 214
“According to role theory (Cooke & Rousseau, 1984; Goode, 1960), expectations associated with work and family roles can lead to physical and psychological strain in at least two ways.”
BackgroundEmotional labor demands and compensating wage differentials.
Glomb, T. M., Kammeyer-Mueller, J. D., & Rotundo, M. (2004) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.89.4.700 · Cited by 208
“The notion that humans seek to conserve or maintain their energies and that this stock of energy is used up in the course of daily activities has been examined elsewhere (Goode, 1960; Marks, 1977; Wharton & Erickson, 1995) and has been applied to the emotional labor domain to explain why emotional labor may lead to bu…”
BackgroundThe Effect of Marriage on the Well-Being of Adults
Gove, W. R., Style, C. B., & Hughes, M. D. (1990) · Journal of Family Issues · doi:10.1177/019251390011001002 · Cited by 210
Lahelma, E. T., Arber, S., Kivelä, K., & Roos, E. (2002) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/s0277-9536(01)00105-8 · Cited by 210
“As characterised by William Goode (1960) such a conflict can be understood as a ‘felt difficulty in fulfilling the role obligations’.”
Workers' perceptions of how jobs affect health: A social ecological perspective.
Ettner, S. L., & Grzywacz, J. G. (2001) · Journal of Occupational Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/1076-8998.6.2.101 · Cited by 218
“and race and may shape perceptions of work-related stress (e.g., role strain; Goode, 1960), marital status and having a young child were also controlled in all analyses.”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Goode, W. J.
- Affiliations
- Columbia University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Goode, William J.
- Venue
- American Sociological Review
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 1960-08
- Volume
- 25
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 483
- ISSN
- 0003-1224 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1976793337
- Cited by
- 2,454
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 143 · 2025: 130 · 2024: 96 · 2023: 87 · 2022: 106 · 2021: 104 · 2020: 92 · 2019: 83 · 2018: 113 · 2017: 73 · 2016: 88 · 2015: 107 · 2014: 98 · 2013: 97 · 2012: 81
- FWCI
- 27.15
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Sociological Review (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Contemporary Sociological Theory and Practice
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social Power and Status Dynamics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Weber, Simmel, Sociological Theory
- Keywords
- role strain, philosophy of action, action systems, subsystems, social systems, organism, personality, cultural systems, symbolic mechanisms, levels of analysis, generalization
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