Paleosols and the evolution of atmospheric oxygen; a critical review
Abstract
A number of investigators have used chemical profiles of paleosols to reconstruct the evolution of atmospheric oxygen levels during the course of Earth history (Holland, 1984, 1994; Kirkham and Roscoe, 1993; Ohmoto, 1996). Over the past decade Holland and his co-workers have examined reported paleosols from six localities that formed between 2.75 and 0.45 Ga. They have found that the chemical profiles of these paleosols are consistent with a dramatic change in atmospheric PO2 between 2.2 and 2.0 Ga from < or = 0.002 to > or = 0.03 atm (Holland, 1994). Ohmoto (1996) examined chemical data from twelve reported paleosols ranging in age from 2.9 to 1.8 Ga. He concluded that these chemical profiles indicate that atmospheric PO2 has not changed significantly during the past 3.0 Ga. We seek to resolve the conflict between these reconstructions through a broader examination of the paleosol literature, both to determine which reported paleosols can be definitively identified as such and to determine what these definite paleosols tell us about atmospheric evolution. We here review reports describing over 50 proposed paleosols, all but two are older than 1.7 Ga. Our review indicates that 15 of these reported paleosols can be definitively identified as ancient soils. The behavior of iron uring the formation of these 15 paleosols provides both qualitative and semiquantitative information about the evolution of the redox state of the atmosphere. Every definitely identified pre-2.44 Ga paleosol suffered significant Fe loss during weathering. This loss indicates that atmospheric PO2 was always less than about 5 x l0(-4) atm prior to 2.44 Ga. Analysis of the Hokkalampi paleosol (2.44-2.2 Ga) (Marmo, 1992) and the Ville Marie paleosol (2.38-2.215 Ga) (Rainbird, Nesbitt, and Donaldson, 1990) yield ambiguous results regarding atmospheric PO2. Loss of Fe during the weathering of the 2.245 to 2.203 Ga Hekpoort paleosol (Button, 1979) indicates that atmospheric PO2 was less than 8 x 10(-4) atm shortly before 2.2 Ga. The presence of red beds immediately overlying the Hokkalampi, Ville Marie, and Hekpoort paleosols suggests that by about 2.2 Ga there was an unquantified but substantial amount of oxygen in the atmosphere. Iron loss was negligible during formation of the 2.2 to 2.0 Ga Wolhaarkop (Holland and Beukes, 1990) and Drakenstein (Wiggering and Beukes, 1990) paleosols and during formation of all the later paleosols we previewed. Thus, atmospheric PO2 probably has been > or = 0.03 atm since sometime between 2.2 and 2.0 Ga.
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Anoxia proxies include the lack of pre-GOE continental redbeds, detrital grains of siderite, uraninite, or pyrite that would oxidize at high pO2, and paleosols with iron washed out by anoxic rainwater.
“Anoxia proxies that have long been recognized include the lack of pre-GOE continental sediments stained by red ferric oxides (redbeds), detrital grains from well-aerated rivers of siderite (FeCO3), uraninite (UO2), or pyrite that would oxidize and dissolve or rust at high pO2 (65, 66), and paleosols with iron washed out by anoxic rainwater [e.g., (67)].”
From The Archean atmosphere (2020) · cites this paper as [67]
The lower limit of 1% PAL was based on oxidative weathering and specifically the level of O2 required to retain insoluble iron [Fe(III)] in ancient soils, which has been described from this time.
“The lower limit of 1% was based on oxidative weathering and specifically the level of O2 required to retain insoluble iron [Fe(III)] in ancient soils, which has been described from this time—in contrast to the loss of Fe in soils before the GOE (Rye and Holland, 1998).”
From Oxygenation, Life, and the Planetary System during Earth's Middle History: An Overview (2021) · cites this paper as Rye and Holland, 1998
Paleosol oxidation state at ∼1.85 Ga and ∼1.1 Ga indicates pO2>0.01 PAL.
“Subsequently, paleosol oxidation state8 at ∼1.85 Ga and ∼1.1 Ga indicates pO2>0.01 PAL”
From Atmospheric oxygen regulation at low Proterozoic levels by incomplete oxidative weathering of sedimentary organic carbon (2017) · cites this paper as [8]
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New Light on Aerobic Anoxygenic Phototrophs
Yurkov, V., & Csotonyi, J. T. (2008) · Advances in photosynthesis and respiration · doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-8815-5_3 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Anomalous 17O compositions in massive sulphate deposits on the Earth
Bao, H., Thiemens, M. H., Farquhar, J. D., Campbell, D. A., Lee, C. C.-W., Heine, K., & Loope, D. B. (2000) · Nature · doi:10.1038/35018052 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
The History of the UV Radiation Climate of the Earth-Theoretical and Space-based Observations¶
Cockell, C. S., & Horneck, G. (2007) · Photochemistry and Photobiology · doi:10.1562/0031-8655(2001)0730447thotur2.0.co2 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Uranium in iron formations and the rise of atmospheric oxygen
Partin, C. A., Lalonde, S. V., Planavsky, N. J., Bekker, A., Rouxel, O. J., Lyons, T. W., & Konhauser, K. O. (2013) · Chemical Geology · doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2013.09.005 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
How did life survive Earth's great oxygenation?
Fischer, W. W., Hemp, J., & Valentine, J. S. (2016) · Current Opinion in Chemical Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cbpa.2016.03.013 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
- Authors
- Rye, R., & Holland, H. D.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- Venue
- American Journal of Science
- Publisher
- American Journal of Science (AJS)
- Published
- 1998-10-01
- Volume
- 298
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 621-672
- ISSN
- 0002-9599 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1999057913
- Cited by
- 524
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 27 · 2020: 22 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 13 · 2017: 22 · 2016: 20 · 2015: 25 · 2014: 14 · 2013: 36 · 2012: 22
- FWCI
- 15.27
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Journal of Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Paleontology and Stratigraphy of Fossils
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Soil Science › Soil and Environmental Studies
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geophysics › Geological and Geochemical Analysis
- Keywords
- paleosols, atmospheric oxygen evolution, iron loss, iron oxyhydroxide
- MeSH terms
- Atmosphere, Iron, Oxygen, Partial Pressure, Soil, Earth, Planet, Geologic Sediments, Evolution, Planetary
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