Effectiveness of individual lifestyle interventions in reducing cardiovascular disease and risk factors

Ketola, Eeva; Sipilä, Raija; Mäkelä, Marjukka

doi:10.3109/07853890009011767

Cited by 136Cardiovascular Health and Risk FactorsHealth Promotion and Cardiovascular PreventionCardiac Health and Mental Health

Effectiveness of individual lifestyle interventions in reducing cardiovascular disease and risk factors

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Ketola, Eeva, Sipilä, Raija, Mäkelä, Marjukka·2000·Annals of Medicine

DOI 10.3109/07853890009011767

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Abstract

In order to assess the effectiveness of lifestyle interventions in reducing cardiovascular disease risk factors, morbidity and mortality among working-age adults, we undertook a systematic review of randomized controlled trials of various lifestyle interventions (diet, exercise, smoking cessation, alcohol intake reduction) in adults followed for 1 year or longer. Twenty-one single-factor and 21 multifactorial interventions were analysed by outcome. Changes in cardiovascular morbidity and mortality and total mortality were considered as main outcomes. Changes in weight, total cholesterol, blood pressure, sodium excretion, smoking and alcohol consumption were also analysed, and numbers needed to treat were calculated for smoking, morbidity and mortality. In secondary prevention, both single and multifactorial lifestyle interventions were shown to reduce morbidity and mortality, and multifactorial approaches reduced cholesterol levels. Primary prevention was found to reduce risk factors efficiently, especially when the intervention is multifactorial. Effect sizes were heterogeneous with wide confidence intervals. Standardized ways of describing interventions, measuring their effects and reporting outcomes systematically would facilitate effect-size evaluations. Interventions should optimally be multifactorial and targeted at high-risk patients with multiple risk factors for cardiovascular disease.

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Meta-analyses have shown reduced morbidity and mortality associated with lifestyle interventions used for secondary prevention.
“Meta-analyses have shown reduced morbidity and mortality associated with lifestyle interventions used for secondary prevention.162,163”
From Obesity‐Related Hypertension: Pathogenesis, Cardiovascular Risk, and Treatment: A Position Paper of The Obesity Society and the American Society of Hypertension (2013) · cites this paper as [162]

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Cardiovascular morbidity and multifactorial primary prevention
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Comparison of a lifestyle modification program with propranolol use in the management of diastolic hypertension
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Systematic review of the long-term effects and economic consequences of treatments for obesity and implications for health improvement
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Obesity‐Related Hypertension: Pathogenesis, Cardiovascular Risk, and Treatment: A Position Paper of The Obesity Society and the American Society of Hypertension
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Multiple behavioral risk factor interventions in primary care
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“A detailed evaluation of various smoking cessation methods and programs is beyond the scope of this article, but they are available elsewhere.(25-28) Although smoking cessation improves the natural history of COPD, once COPD becomes clinically apparent many sustained quitters remain symptomatic and their airways are p…”
Background
Obesity‐related hypertension: Pathogenesis, cardiovascular risk, and treatment—A position paper of the The Obesity Society and the American Society of Hypertension
Landsberg, L., Aronne, L. J., Beilin, L. J., Burke, V., Igel, L. I., Lloyd‐Jones, D. M., & Sowers, J. R. (2012) · Obesity · doi:10.1002/oby.20181 · Cited by 286 · see citing works
“Meta-analyses have shown reduced morbidity and mortality associated with lifestyle interventions used for secondary prevention (162,163).”
Background
Effectiveness of a motivational interviewing intervention on weight loss, physical activity and cardiovascular disease risk factors: a randomised controlled trial with a 12-month post-intervention follow-up
Hardcastle, S. J., Taylor, A. H., Bailey, M. P., Harley, R. A., & Hagger, M. S. (2013) · International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity · doi:10.1186/1479-5868-10-40 · Cited by 269 · see citing works
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“Many systematic reviews have already offered overviews of the evidence in this area (Burke et al., 1997; Ketola et al., 2000; Avenell et al., 2004; Fang et al., 2004; Bradshaw et al., 2005; Suhonen et al., 2008).”
Evidence-informed physical activity guidelines for Canadian adultsThis article is part of a supplement entitled Advancing physical activity measurement and guidelines in Canada: a scientific review and evidence-based foundation for the future of Canadian physical activity guidelines co-published by Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism and the Canadian Journal of Public Health. It may be cited as Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. 32(Suppl. 2E) or as Can. J. Public Health 98(Suppl. 2).
Warburton, D. E. R., Katzmarzyk, P. T., Rhodes, R. E., & Shephard, R. J. (2007) · Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism · doi:10.1139/h07-123 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
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“…a single behavior is consistent with prior meta-analyses that have concluded that stronger improvements in health outcomes are associated with participation in interventions targeting multiple behavior domains (Conn et al., 2008; Ebrahim et al., 2011; Ketola et al., 2000; Spring et al., 2009).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Community Programs for the Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease: A Systematic Review
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“…at greater lifetime risk of these complications (Caplan et al., 1994; Pouilles et al., 1994; van der Schouw et al., 1996; Jacobsen et al., 1999; Hu et al., 1999), and may bene®t from lifestyle modi®cation and/or pharmacological therapy (Ketola et al., 2000; Hooper et al., 2001; Delmas, 2002).”
Background
Improving Physical Activity and Dietary Behaviours with Single or Multiple Health Behaviour Interventions? A Synthesis of Meta-Analyses and Reviews
Sweet, S. N., & Fortier, M. (2010) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph7041720 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
“Of these 14, eight [50,51,59-64] reported effect sizes while nine [33,44,54,58,60,61,63,65,66] reported the percentage of positive effects of the interventions.”
Background
The effect of multifactorial lifestyle interventions on cardiovascular risk factors: a systematic review and meta-analysis of trials conducted in the general population and high risk groups
Sisti, L. G., Dajko, M., Campanella, P., Shkurti, E., Ricciardi, W., & de Waure, C. (2017) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2017.12.027 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Measuring Contextual Characteristics for Community Health
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Multiple healthy behaviors and optimal self-rated health: Findings from the 2007 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System Survey
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“Data for 2 comparisons (2 treatment groups compared to a control group or 2 treatment group outcomes compared to baseline values) were available from 14 reports [12,33,46,47,50,68,82,89,90,99,101,109,112,126], a few reports (s=3) contained 3 comparisons [65,67,110].”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Dietetic guidelines on food and nutrition in the secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease – evidence from systematic reviews of randomized controlled trials (second update, January 2006)
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“…research has shown that moderate alcohol consumption has in fact a protective effect on cardiovascular disease-associated morbidity and mortality (Rimm et al., 1996; McKee and Britton, 1998; Cleophas, 1999; Ketola et al., 2000; Koppes et al., 2006; Djousse and Gaziano, 2008; Lindberg et al., 2008).”
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“Because of the lack of published trials on AD and dementia risk reduction, power estimations were based on medium-effect sizes found for multidomain lifestyle interventions in the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease [15].”
Background
A cohort study found that earlier and longer Seventh-day Adventist church membership was associated with reduced male mortality
Heuch, I., Jacobsen, B. K., & Fraser, G. E. (2005) · Journal of Clinical Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.jclinepi.2004.04.014 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“In actual intervention studies, however, little effect has been seen of primary prevention programs on overall mortality among working-age populations [13].”
Background
Cloninger’s Temperament Dimensions, Socio-economic and Lifestyle Factors and Metabolic Syndrome Markers at Age 31 Years in the Northern Finland Birth Cohort 1966
Sovio, U., King, V. J., Miettunen, J., Ek, E., Laitinen, J. H., Joukamaa, M. I., Veijola, J. M., & Järvelin, M. (2007) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/1359105307074301 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Dietary Fat and Cardiovascular Disease Risk: Quantity or Quality?
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“30,31 For example, Stampfer et al. 32 recently reported that 54% of the population attributable risk (PAR) for CHD could be accounted for by diet, nonsmoking, and habitual moderate to vigorous exercise ( .”
Bundesärztekammer Kassenärztliche Bundesvereinigung Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Wissenschaftlichen Medizinischen Fachgesellschaften
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“There is accumulating evidence that interventions can successfully focus on more than one behavioral risk factor (21, 22, 55-59), even when the risk factors have varying features (e.”
Background
Results of systematic review of research on diagnosis and treatment of coronary heart disease in women.
Grady, D., Chaput, L. A., & Kristof, M. (2003) · PubMed Central · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Multiple risk-behavior profiles of smokers with serious mental illness and motivation for change.
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“32 36 Just why the intensive support was effective for ﬁve of the 12 indicators remains unclear.”
Background
Impact of lifestyle intervention on physical activity and diet of Japanese workers
Arao, T., Oida, Y., Maruyama, C., Mutou, T., Sawada, S., Matsuzuki, H., & Nakanishi, Y. (2007) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2007.05.004 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
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Background
Identifying contexts and mechanisms in multiple behavior change interventions affecting smoking cessation success: a rapid realist review
Minian, N., Corrin, T., Lingam, M., deRuiter, W. K., Rodak, T., Taylor, V. H., Manson, H. E., Dragonetti, R., Zawertailo, L. A., Melamed, O. C., et al. (2020) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-020-08973-2 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Wearable biosensors for cardiovascular monitoring leveraging nanomaterials
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Effectiveness of multifactorial interventions in primary health care settings for primary prevention of cardiovascular disease: A systematic review of systematic reviews
Álvarez‐Bueno, C., Cavero‐Redondo, I., Martínez-Andrés, M., Arias-Palencia, N. M., Ramos, R., & Salcedo‐Aguilar, F. (2014) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2014.11.028 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“, 2012;) and at least 12 months in three studies (Fleming and Godwin, 2008; Ketola et al., 2000; Pennant et al., 2010).”
Influential
Profile of European adults interested in internet-based personalised nutrition: the Food4Me study
Livingstone, K. M., Celis-Morales, C. A., Navas‐Carretero, S., San-Cristóbal, R., O’Donovan, C. B., Forster, H., Woolhead, C., Marsaux, C. F. M., Macready, A. L., Fallaize, R., et al. (2015) · European Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1007/s00394-015-0897-y · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“With modifiable risk factors estimated to account for over 80% of premature deaths from CVD and cerebrovascular disease [2], lifestyle-based interventions, including diet and physical activity, have been identified as an effective strategy for minimising the burden of NCD [3].”
Influential
Effectiveness of Behavioral Interventions to Modify Physical Activity Behaviors in General Populations and Cancer Patients and Survivors: Evidence Report/Technology Assessment, Number 102
Holtzman, J. L., Schmitz, K. H., Babes, G., Kane, R. L., Duval, S., Wilt, T. J., MacDonald, R., & Rutks, I. R. (2004) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e439832005-001 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Stop Hypertension with the Acupuncture Research Program (SHARP): clinical trial design and screening results
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The impact of socioeconomic status on changes in the general and mental health of women over time: evidence from a longitudinal study of Australian women
Williams, J. S., Cunich, M. M., & Byles, J. (2013) · International Journal for Equity in Health · doi:10.1186/1475-9276-12-25 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“counseling and education in addition to or instead of pharmacological treatments) aimed at reducing cardiovascular disease risk factors showed that strategies which focused on diet, exercise, smoking cessation and alcohol intake reduction were effective for both primary and secondary prevention [56].”
Background
Behavioral Medicine in the Prevention and Treatment of Cardiovascular Disease
Graves, K. D., & Miller, P. M. (2003) · Behavior Modification · doi:10.1177/0145445502238690 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“Ketola, Sipila, and Makela (2000) reviewed the literature on the effectiveness of individual lifestyle interventions in reducing risk factors and found that primary prevention reduced risk factors significantly, especially when the intervention was multifactorial.”
Background
Individualised multifactorial lifestyle intervention trial for high-risk cardiovascular patients in primary care.
Ketola, E., Mākelä, M., & Klockars, M. (2001) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · Cited by 38 · see citing works
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The covariation of multiple risk factors in primary care: a latent class analysis
Funderburk, J. S., Maisto, S. A., Sugarman, D. E., & Wade, M. (2008) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-008-9176-1 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Dietetic guidelines: diet in secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease (first update, June 2003)
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Exercise Self-Efficacy as a Mediator between Goal-Setting and Physical Activity: Developing the Workplace as a Setting for Promoting Physical Activity
Iwasaki, Y., Honda, S., Kaneko, S., 一博, 栗., Honda, A., Kakinuma, A., & Jahng, D. (2016) · Safety and Health at Work · doi:10.1016/j.shaw.2016.08.004 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Ischemic heart disease after renal transplantation
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Action and inaction in multi-behaviour recommendations: a meta-analysis of lifestyle interventions
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Effect of Lifestyle Changes on Atherogenic Lipids and Endothelial Cell Adhesion Molecules in Young Adults With Familial Premature Coronary Heart Disease
Tonstad, S., Sundfør, T. M., & Seljeflot, I. (2005) · The American Journal of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.amjcard.2005.01.047 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
The impact of a population-based multi-factorial lifestyle intervention on changes in long-term dietary habits
Toft, U., Kristoffersen, L., Ladelund, S., Ovesen, L., Lau, C. J., Borch‐Johnsen, K., Pisinger, C. H., & Jørgensen, T. (2008) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2008.05.013 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Australian College of Rural and Remote Medicine
Nichols, A., Streeton, M., & Cowie, M. (2002) · Australian Journal of Rural Health · doi:10.1046/j.1440-1584.2002.00480.x · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Management of Ischemic Stroke in the Next Decade: Stroke Centers of Excellence
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Effective and cost-effective measures to reduce alcohol misuse in Scotland A literature review
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Doença cardíaca isquêmica: a prevenção inicia durante a infância
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A 12-week multidomain intervention versus active control to reduce risk of Alzheimer’s disease: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial
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“) and were based on medium effect sizes found for multidomain lifestyle interventions for the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease (CVD) [22] due to the lack of published trials on dementia risk reduction.”
BackgroundInfluential
Potential population impact of the UK government strategy for reducing the burden of coronary heart disease in England: comparing primary and secondary prevention strategies
Gemmell, I., Heller, R. F., Payne, K., Edwards, R., Roland, M. O., & Durrington, P. N. (2006) · BMJ Quality & Safety · doi:10.1136/qshc.2005.017061 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Lignes directrices éclairées par des données probantes sur l’activité physique à l’intention des Canadiens adultesCet article est tiré d’un supplément intitulé Advancing physical activity measurement and guidelines in Canada: a scientific review and evidence-based foundation for the future of Canadian physical activity guidelines (Favoriser les lignes directrices et la mesure de l’activité physique au Canada: examen scientifique et justification selon les données probantes pour l’avenir des lignes directrices de l’activité physique canadienne) publié par Physiologie appliquée, nutrition et métabolisme et la Revue canadienne de santé publique. On peut aussi mentionner Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. 32 (Suppl. 2F) ou Can. J. Public Health 98 (Suppl. 2).
Warburton, D. E. R., Katzmarzyk, P. T., Rhodes, R. E., & Shephard, R. J. (2007) · Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism · doi:10.1139/h07-168 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
The economics of smoking and cardiovascular disease
Lightwood, J. M. (2003) · Progress in Cardiovascular Diseases · doi:10.1016/s0033-0620(03)00077-x · Cited by 28 · see citing works
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ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Smid, H. E. C., Hellemans, I. M., Cardio, A., & Stam, F. (2012)
The impact of lifestyle interventions on cardiovascular risk factors in high risk population.
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Authors: Ketola, E., Sipilä, R., & Mäkelä, M.
Corresponding author: Ketola, Eeva
ORCID: Ketola, Eeva
Sipilä, Raija
Venue: Annals of Medicine
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Published: 2000-01
Volume: 32
Issue: 4
Pages: 239-251
ISSN: 0785-3890 (ISSN-L)
1365-2060
DOI: 10.3109/07853890009011767
OpenAlex: W2142524048
Cited by: 135
References: 99
Citations by year: 2026: 2 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 1 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 8
FWCI: 1.49
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Locations: Annals of Medicine (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
STM:n Hallinnonalan avoin julkaisuarkisto (Julkari) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Cardiovascular Health and Risk Factors
Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Health Promotion and Cardiovascular Prevention
Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Cardiac Health and Mental Health
Keywords: lifestyle intervention, cardiovascular disease, cardiovascular risk factors, multifactorial intervention, diet, physical activity, smoking cessation, alcohol consumption reduction, secondary prevention, primary prevention, cardiovascular morbidity, cardiovascular mortality, all-cause mortality, cholesterol, blood pressure, sodium excretion, weight, number needed to treat, working-age adults
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Alcohol Drinking, Blood Pressure, Body Weight, Cardiovascular Diseases, Cholesterol, Diet, Female, Follow-Up Studies, Humans, Life Style, Male, Middle Aged, Primary Prevention, Risk Factors, Smoking, Sodium, Health Behavior, Exercise, Survival Rate, Confidence Intervals, Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic, Smoking Cessation, Outcome Assessment, Health Care

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