Maternal migration and autism risk: Systematic analysis
Abstract
Autism (AUT) is one of the most prevalent developmental disorders emerging during childhood, and can be amongst the most incapacitating mental disorders. Some individuals with AUT require a lifetime of supervised care. Autism Speaks reported estimated costs for 2012 at £34 billion in the UK; and $3.2 million-$126 billion in the US, Australia and Canada. Ethnicity and migration experiences appear to increase risks of AUT and relate to underlying biological risk factors. Sociobiological stress factors can affect the uterine environment, or relate to stress-induced epigenetic changes during pregnancy and delivery. Epigenetic risk factors associated with AUT also include poor pregnancy conditions, low birth weight, and congenital malformation. Recent studies report that children from migrant communities are at higher risk of AUT than children born to non-migrant mothers, with the exception of Hispanic children. This paper provides the first systematic review into prevalence and predictors of AUT with a particular focus on maternal migration stressors and epigenetic risk factors. AUT rates appear higher in certain migrant communities, potentially relating to epigenetic changes after stressful experiences. Although AUT remains a rare disorder, failures to recognize its public health urgency and local community needs continue to leave certain cultural groups at a disadvantage.
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A 2015 review including ten studies found a positive association with immigration in three studies, no connection in five, and a reverse association in two studies.
“A 2015 review including ten studies found a positive association with immigration in three studies, no connection in five, and a reverse association in two studies [225].”
From The contribution of environmental exposure to the etiology of autism spectrum disorder (2019) · cites this paper as [225]
Six of the ten studies found that giving birth postmaternal migration increased ASD risk.
“Six of the ten studies found that giving birth postmaternal migration increased ASD risk.”
From The contribution of environmental exposure to the etiology of autism spectrum disorder (2019) · cites this paper as [225]
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Ricci, M. F., Phung, R. R., Zwaigenbaum, L., Hanlon‐Dearman, A., Burns, J., Narvey, S., & Urquia, M. L. (2024) · Paediatrics & Child Health · doi:10.1093/pch/pxae031 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
de Araújo, I. P. S., & Menezes, A. M. D. C. (2021) · ID on line REVISTA DE PSICOLOGIA · doi:10.14295/idonline.v15i58.3354 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Rahaman, K. S., Eapen, V., Subramanium, M., John, J. R., Ekanayake, K., & Arora, A. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0314333 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Is Autism Spectrum Disorder in Early Childhood Related to Antenatal Exposure to Air Pollution?
Mathew, J. L., & Sharma, A. K. (2019) · Indian Pediatrics · doi:10.1007/s13312-019-1470-1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Autism Spectrum Disorder and Prenatal Risk Factors
Erden, S., & Nalbant, K. (2019) · Selçuk Tıp Dergisi · doi:10.30733/std.2019.00942 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Elsabbagh, M. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-20792-1_13 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Autism Spectrum Disorder, Fear Response, and Environmental Exposures
Theoharides, T. C., Sant, J., & Giota, M.-E. (2019) · Advances in human services and public health (AHSPH) book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-7635-8.ch002 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Toh, M. C. W. (2015) · The Atrium (University of Guelph)
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Premigration social adversity: a factor of vulnerability for Autism Spectrum DisorderPreprint
Tordjman, S. (2020) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/q6xtg
Transtorno do Espectro do Autismo: Um estudo epidemiológico no Norte de Minas Gerais
Maia, F. A., Silveira, M. F., & Araújo, S. L. N. O. (2022) · Stricto Sensu Editora eBooks · doi:10.35170/ss.ed.9786586283709
Neurodevelopmental Aspects of Behavioural Differences II. Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
Stevenson, J. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-45787-6_10
Die Autismus-Spektrum-Störung – Barrieren in der sozialen Interaktion
Jenni, O. G. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-69223-3_10
Rahaman, K. S., Eapen, V., Subramanium, M., John, J. R., Ekanayake, K., & Arora, A. (2024) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2024.11.12.24317152
Autism and immigration background, insights from a population-based study
Ricci, M. F., Detillieux, G. R., Yousefiasl, S., Zwaigenbaum, L., Narvey, S., Yogendran, M. S., & Urquia, M. L. (2025) · Paediatrics & Child Health · doi:10.1093/pch/pxaf115
Additional file 2 of Developmental disorders among Norwegian-born children with immigrant parents
TM, H., Qureshi, S. A., Gele, A. A., Hauge, L. J., Biele, G. P., Surén, P., & M, K. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26559692
Additional file 3 of Developmental disorders among Norwegian-born children with immigrant parents
TM, H., Qureshi, S. A., Gele, A. A., Hauge, L. J., Biele, G. P., Surén, P., & M, K. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26559695
Brandl, E. J., Dietrich, N., Mell, N., Winkler, J., Gutwinski, S., Bretz, H. J., & Schouler-Ocak, M. (2020) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.12150768
Additional file 4 of Developmental disorders among Norwegian-born children with immigrant parents
TM, H., Qureshi, S. A., Gele, A. A., Hauge, L. J., Biele, G. P., Surén, P., & M, K. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26559698
Additional file 1 of Developmental disorders among Norwegian-born children with immigrant parents
TM, H., Qureshi, S. A., Gele, A. A., Hauge, L. J., Biele, G. P., Surén, P., & M, K. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26559689
Gele, A. A., & Duale, H. A. (2026) · BMC Pediatrics · doi:10.1186/s12887-026-06765-y
Alice, G. E., Sorge, F., Roux, É. L., Guilmin‐Crépon, S., Goutines, J., Miller, L. C., Taine, M., Basmaci, R., & Faye, A. (2026) · Journal of Migration and Health · doi:10.1016/j.jmh.2026.100412
de Leeuw, A. E., Ester, W. A., Bolhuis, K., Hoek, H. W., & Jansen, P. W. (2026) · Gezinstherapie Wereldwijd · doi:10.1007/s12440-026-00281-2
Tsai, H., Chen, L.-W., Lin, Y., Tsai, P.-S., & Huang, C.-C. (2026) · International Journal of Nursing Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2026.105632
Puerto, M. S. C., & Vázquez, M. S. (2026) · Advances in Autism · doi:10.1108/aia-04-2026-0042
Allport, T., & Osman, F. A. (2026) · Global Health Action · doi:10.1080/16549716.2026.2732764
- Authors
- Crafa, D., & Warfa, N.
- Affiliations
- Douglas Mental Health University Institute (CA)
- Queen Mary University of London (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Crafa, Daina
- Venue
- International Review of Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2015-01-02
- Volume
- 27
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 64-71
- ISSN
- 0954-0261 (ISSN-L)
- 1369-1627
- OpenAlex
- W2045504612
- Cited by
- 68
- References
- 59
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 1 · 2015: 1
- FWCI
- 0.43
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- International Review of Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Migration, Health and Trauma
- Keywords
- autism spectrum disorder, maternal migration, migrant children, epigenetic risk factors, prenatal stress, low birth weight, congenital malformations, autism prevalence, Hispanic children
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Autistic Disorder, Child, Humans, Mothers, Epigenesis, Genetic, Emigrants and Immigrants
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