Migration and autism spectrum disorder: population-based study
Open accessAbstract
Background: Migration has been implicated as a risk factor for autism, but evidence is limited and inconsistent. Aims: To investigate the relationship between parental migration status and risk of autism spectrum disorder, taking into consideration the importance of region of origin, timing of migration and possible discrepancies in associations between autism subtypes. Method: Record-linkage study within the total child population of Stockholm County between 2001 and 2007. Individuals with high- and low-functioning autism were defined as having autism spectrum disorder with and without comorbid intellectual disability, and ascertained via health and habilitation service registers. Results: In total, 4952 individuals with autism spectrum disorder were identified, comprising 2855 children with high-functioning autism and 2097 children with low-functioning autism. Children of migrant parents were at increased risk of low-functioning autism (odds ratio (OR) = 1.5, 95% CI 1.3–1.7); this risk was highest when parents migrated from regions with a low human development index, and peaked when migration occurred around pregnancy (OR = 2.3, 95% CI 1.7–3.0). A decreased risk of high-functioning autism was observed in children of migrant parents, regardless of area of origin or timing of migration. Parental age, income or obstetric complications did not fully explain any of these associations. Conclusions: Environmental factors associated with migration may contribute to the development of autism presenting with comorbid intellectual disability, especially when acting in utero.High- and low-functioning autism may have partly different aetiologies, and should be studied separately.
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An increased prevalence of ASD has been reported in migrant groups in some studies.
“An increased prevalence of ASD has been reported in migrant groups in some studies 8”
From Autism spectrum disorder (2020) · cites this paper as [8]
Several recent studies suggest that parental immigration, especially maternal immigration but also paternal immigration, is a risk factor for ASD.
“In fact, several recent studies suggest that parental immigration, especially maternal immigration but also paternal immigration, is a risk factor for ASD (53–59).”
From Gene × Environment Interactions in Autism Spectrum Disorders: Role of Epigenetic Mechanisms (2014) · cites this paper as [57]
Most studies showed increased risk of ASD among children of migrant parents, while some reported no association or even decreased risk.
“Most studies showed increased risk of ASD among children of migrant parents [61,62,63,64,65,66,67,69,70], while some reported no association [61,65,68,69] or even decreased risk [61,68,69,70].”
From Vitamin D and Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Literature Review (2016) · cites this paper as [61]
Magnusson et al. (2012) reported an increased risk of low functioning autism and decreased risk of high functioning autism in children of migrant parents in Sweden, with risk ratios 1.2 (1.0-1.4) and 0.5 (0.4-0.6), respectively.
“Magnusson et al. (2012) reported an increased risk of low functioning autism and decreased risk of high functioning autism in children of migrant parents in Sweden, 1.2 (1.0–1.4) and 0.5 (0.4–0.6), respectively [61], a finding confirmed by Williams et al. 2008 [66] and Becerra et al. (2014) [69].”
From Vitamin D and Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Literature Review (2016) · cites this paper as [61]
The risk for low-functioning autism peaked when migration occurred around the time of pregnancy.
“The risk for low-functioning autism peaked when migration occurred around the time of pregnancy”
From Autism risk factors: genes, environment, and gene-environment interactions (2012) · cites this paper as [89]
Children of migrant parents are at an increased risk of autism with intellectual disability, especially when parents migrated to Sweden from regions with a low human development index, and a decreased risk of high-functioning autism.
“children of migrant parents are at an increased risk of autism with intellectual disability, especially when parents migrated to Sweden from regions with a low human development index, and a decreased risk of high-functioning autism”
From Autism risk factors: genes, environment, and gene-environment interactions (2012) · cites this paper as [89]
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Maternal vitamin D deficiency and the risk of autism spectrum disorders: population-based study
Magnusson, C., Kosidou, K., Dalman, C., Lundberg, M., Lee, B. K., Rai, D., Karlsson, H., Gardner, R., & Arver, S. (2016) · BJPsych Open · doi:10.1192/bjpo.bp.116.002675 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Self-citationMaternal migration and autism risk: Systematic analysis
Crafa, D., & Warfa, N. (2015) · International Review of Psychiatry · doi:10.3109/09540261.2014.995601 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
The familial risk of autism spectrum disorder with and without intellectual disability
Xie, S., Karlsson, H., Dalman, C., Widman, L., Rai, D., Gardner, R. M., Magnusson, C., Sandin, S., Tabb, L. P., Newschaffer, C. J., et al. (2020) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.2417 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Self-citationAn incidence study of diagnosed autism-spectrum disorders among immigrants to The Netherlands
van der Ven, E., Termorshuizen, F., Laan, W., Breetvelt, E. J., van Os, J., & Selten, J. P. (2013) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/acps.12054 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Gubi, E., Sjöqvist, H., Viksten-Assel, K., Bäärnhielm, S., Dalman, C., & Hollander, A.-C. (2022) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-021-02145-2 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citationParental migration and Asperger’s syndrome
Lehti, V., Cheslack-Postava, K., Gissler, M., Hinkka-Yli-Salomäki, S., Brown, A. S., & Sourander, A. (2015) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-014-0643-7 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
- Authors
- Magnusson, C., Rai, D., Goodman, A., Lundberg, M., Idring, S., Svensson, A., Koupil, I., Serlachius, E., & Dalman, C.
- Affiliations
- Karolinska Institutet (SE)
- Stockholm University (SE)
- Region Stockholm (SE)
- Corresponding author
- Magnusson, Cecilia
- ORCID
- Venue
- British Journal of Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Royal College of Psychiatrists
- Published
- 2012-08
- Volume
- 201
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 109-115
- ISSN
- 0007-1250 (ISSN-L)
- 1472-1465
- OpenAlex
- W2143871914
- Cited by
- 175
- References
- 75
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 11 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 10 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 17 · 2013: 11 · 2012: 8
- FWCI
- 7.36
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- The British Journal of Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- LSHTM Research Online (London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine) (acceptedVersion)
- Bristol Research (University of Bristol) (submittedVersion)
- Explore Bristol Research (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Forskningsrådet för Arbetsliv och Socialvetenskap (2007-2064)
- Stockholms Läns Landsting
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Migration, Health and Trauma
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
- Keywords
- autism spectrum disorder, parental migration, migrant children, low-functioning autism, high-functioning autism, intellectual disability, Human Development Index, migration timing, prenatal environmental exposure, autism subtypes, autism etiology
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Child, Child Development Disorders, Pervasive, Child, Preschool, Emigration and Immigration, Humans, Infant, Maternal Age, Middle Aged, Paternal Age, Residence Characteristics, Risk Factors, Odds Ratio, Case-Control Studies, Young Adult
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