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Cited by 87Marine Ecology and Invasive SpeciesReproductive biology and impacts on aquatic speciesFish Ecology and Management Studies

Reproductive biology of invasive lionfish (Pterois spp.)

Open access
Gardner, Patrick G., Frazer, Thomas K., Jacoby, Charles A., Yanong, Roy P. E.·2015·Frontiers in Marine Science
DOI 10.3389/fmars.2015.00007
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Abstract

Indo-Pacific lionfishes, Pterois volitans (Linnaeus, 1758) and Pterois miles (Bennett, 1828), native to the Pacific and Indian Oceans, respectively, were first observed in the western Atlantic off Florida in 1985. They have since spread and are established throughout the broader Caribbean region. Despite potentially devastating ecological and economic effects, information on key life history characteristics for lionfish in the invaded range is sparse. Objectives of this study were to quantify 1) periodicity in gonad development and spawning, 2) spawning frequency, 3) batch fecundity and 4) female size at maturity for fish from Little Cayman. Calculation of gonadosomatic indices, histological and macroscopic staging of gonads, and counts of hydrated oocytes were applied to determine reproductive characteristics. Higher gonadosomatic indices were recorded for females during periods of stable warm or cool water temperatures indicating that extreme temperatures did not constrain reproduction. Histological and macroscopic staging suggested that male and female lionfish were capable of reproducing year-round. However, higher gonadosomatic indices in females, as expected before spawning, were most pronounced in March/April and August. Based on the proportion of females containing hydrated oocytes, mature lionfish had the potential to spawn every 2–3 d. Ovaries of mature females contained 1800–41945 oocytes that were hydrated in preparation for spawning, with greater numbers of oocytes in larger females. Female lionfish matured at 189–190 mm total length. Parameters estimated in this study can improve outputs from population dynamic models, which will help resource managers design removals and other efforts to control invasive lionfish.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This study quantified reproductive traits of invasive lionfish around Little Cayman, finding year-round reproductive capability with peak spawning in March/April and August. Mature females spawned about every 2.4 days, released 1,800–41,945 hydrated oocytes per batch, and matured at 189–190 mm total length.

Key findings

  • Gonadosomatic indices varied significantly by month for females [ANOVA, F(18, 816) = 4.92, P < 0.001] and males [ANOVA, F(18, 1010) = 5.49, P < 0.001]; female mean GSI ranged from 1.96 to 6.19, and male mean GSI from 0.0301 to 0.0564. Histological and macroscopic staging indicated year-round spawning capability, but spawning was most pronounced in March/April and August.
  • Among 107 mature females, 45 had hydrated oocytes, yielding an overall spawning frequency of 2.4 days; daily spawning fraction ranged from 0.00 to 0.57. The authors concluded mature lionfish could spawn every 2–3 days.
  • Batch fecundity ranged from 1,800 to 41,945 hydrated oocytes for fish 204–332 mm TL and 103.2–460.4 g wet mass. Batch fecundity increased significantly with total length [ANCOVA, F(1, 17) = 19.71, P < 0.001] and total mass [ANCOVA, F(1, 17) = 35.54, P < 0.001], with no significant seasonal effect.
  • Female size at maturity was 189 mm TL by the theoretical zero egg production method and 190 [184, 197] mm TL by logistic model, with sigma = 13.1.

Methods

  • Lionfish were collected around Little Cayman from January 2011 to August 2012 by divers; fish were measured, gonads weighed and preserved, and reproductive periodicity assessed using gonadosomatic indices, macroscopic staging, and histological staging. Monthly water temperatures at 4.6 m were obtained from an ICON weather station.
  • Spawning frequency was estimated from 107 mature females collected 7–16 May 2012 using the mature oocyte method, with hydrated oocytes indicating readiness to spawn; oocyte diameters were measured from histological slides.
  • Batch fecundity was estimated from winter and summer ovaries by counting hydrated oocytes in subsamples and scaling to whole ovaries; female size at maturity was estimated by linear regression of batch fecundity against total length and by a logistic model fit to histological and macroscopic maturity data.

Limitations

  • The paper states that the seasonal batch fecundity comparison had low sample size and that the lack of significant seasonal differences could be an artifact; further seasonal sampling is recommended before estimating annual fecundity.
  • The paper states that the spawning frequency estimate represented shallow reefs around Little Cayman during a short period when GSI values were relatively high but not at maximum, and that estimates during maximum GSI may suggest more frequent spawning.
  • The text makes evident that male size at maturity could not be estimated because all captured male lionfish were larger than the 100 mm TL threshold used in a prior study; postovulatory follicles were also rarely observed, possibly because they were resorbed within 12 h or carried away with the gelatinous egg mass.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3389/fmars.2015.00007

Cites

41 of 41 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

8 of 58 cited sources checked · 7 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Lionfish densities at Little Cayman are far greater than the 26.3 fish ha-1 recorded in the native range.

    “which is far greater than the 26.3 fish ha -1 recorded in the native range (Kulbicki et al., 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kulbicki et al., 2012 source
  • Premisenone given

    Both of these studies relied on parameters that were not derived from data on lionfish reproduction in the Caribbean.

    “Both of these studies relied on parameters that were not derived from data on lionfish reproduction in the Caribbean.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Barbour et al., 2011 source
    • cites Morris et al., 2011a source
  • Premisecitation

    To date, two studies have used modeling to predict responses of lionfish populations to removals.

    “To date, two studies have used modeling to predict responses of lionfish populations to removals (Barbour et al., 2011;Morris et al., 2011a).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Barbour et al., 2011 source
    • cites Morris et al., 2011a source
  • Interpretationcitation

    Increased feeding between likely periods of reproduction may have allowed energy reserves to be replenished.

    “These results indicated that lionfish increased feeding in the months between likely periods of reproduction, which may have allowed energy reserves to be replenished (Fordham and Trippel, 1999).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fordham and Trippel, 1999 source
  • Findingown data

    Histological and macroscopic staging suggested that male and female lionfish were capable of reproducing year-round.

    “Histological and macroscopic staging suggested that male and female lionfish were capable of reproducing year-round.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The reproductive characteristics measured for Pterois spp. apply to both P. volitans and P. miles.
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 31
  • May combine two claims. 22
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Lionfish were observed in the waters surrounding Little Cayman Island in 2008 and were considered established there by 2009.

    “In 2008, lionfish were observed in the waters surrounding Little Cayman Island, and they were considered established there by 2009 (Schofield, 2009).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schofield, 2009 source

      The Schofield abstract in the indexed copy (article pp. 473–479) says lionfish were established in the Cayman Islands as of 2009. It does not identify Little Cayman Island specifically or report an observation there in 2008; searches for those details returned no supporting passage. (LLM, conf=0.78)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Mature female fish are ready to spawn if hydrated oocytes are present.

    “Accordingly, mature female fish were categorized as ready to spawn if hydrated oocytes were present (Collins et al., 2001;Almatar et al., 2004).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Collins et al., 2001
    • cites Almatar et al., 2004 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Ovarian morphologies of P. volitans and P. miles are categorized as cystovarian type II-3, with a deep ovarian stroma, intermediate ovarian cavity, and superficial ovarian wall.

    “Ovarian morphologies of P. volitans and P. miles are categorized as cystovarian type II-3, with a deep ovarian stroma, intermediate ovarian cavity, and superficial ovarian wall (Koya and Muñoz, 2007;Morris et al., 2011b).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Koya and Muñoz, 2007 source
    • cites Morris et al., 2011b source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Pterois spp. have asynchronous oocyte development and indeterminate fecundity.

    “They have asynchronous oocyte development and indeterminate fecundity (Morris et al., 2011b).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Morris et al., 2011b source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Months with high GSI values corresponded to months with a high prevalence of maturing oocytes, including oocytes in late maturation, and a low prevalence of oocytes in primary growth.

    “The months with high GSI values corresponded to months with a high prevalence of maturing oocytes, including oocytes in late maturation, and a low prevalence of oocytes in primary growth.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Monthly proportions were consistently low for regressed (0-25%), early GE development (0-27%), and late GE development (0-31%).

    “Monthly proportions were consistently low for regressed (0-25%), early GE development (0-27%), and late GE development (0-31%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The highest GSI values occurred in March and August 2011, when histological staging identified the highest proportion of maturing females and no fish in primary growth.

    “The highest GSI values occurred in March and August 2011, when histological staging identified the highest proportion of maturing females and no fish in primary growth.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The first records of GSI values and histological staging of ovaries indicated two major spawning periods per year for lionfish in the central Caribbean, coinciding with periods of relatively stable water temperatures in March/April and August.

    “The first records of GSI values for lionfish and histological staging of ovaries indicated two major spawning periods per year, which coincided with periods of relatively stable water temperatures in March/April and August.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Most female lionfish were characterized as developing (50%), followed by ripe (42%), immature/resting (7%), and spent (1%).

    “Most of the fish were characterized as developing (50%) followed by ripe (42%), immature/resting (7%) and spent (1%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The choice of denominator in the F-test accounted for a significant difference among fields of view (ANOVA F(141,3203)=11.22, P<0.001).

    “with the choice of the denominator in the F-test accounting for a significant difference among fields of view [ANOVA, F (141, 3203) = 11.22,P < 0.001]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Overall, both male and female GSI values followed similar patterns with higher values from January to April, lower values from April to June-July, and higher values in August and September.

    “Overall, both male and female GSI values followed similar patterns with higher values from January to April, lower values from April to June-July, and higher values in August and September.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Maximum GSI values corresponded to a high prevalence of ripe fish in combination with a low prevalence of non-reproductive fish, similar to histological staging.

    “Similar to histological staging, maximum GSI values corresponded to a high prevalence of ripe fish in combination with a low prevalence of non-reproductive fish.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    The occurrence of both atretic oocytes and POFs was low.

    “In fact, mature females appeared to cycle through a non-reproductive state quickly as evidenced by the low occurrence of both atretic oocytes and POFs, which should have been left behind after oocytes were ovulated into the gelatinous egg mass.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The estimated spawning frequency of lionfish on shallow reefs (∼30 m or less) around Little Cayman Island was 2.41 days on average, during a short time when GSI values for mature females were relatively high but not at the maximum observed.

    “The estimate of spawning frequency reported here, 2.41 days on average, was representative of lionfish spawning on shallow reefs (∼30 m or less) around Little Cayman Island during a short time when GSI values for mature females were relatively high, but not at the maximum observed.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Female GSI values varied more widely and exhibited a clearer monthly pattern.

    “Female GSI values varied more widely and exhibited a clearer monthly pattern, a phenomenon also reported for other fish (e.g., the dolphinfish, Coryphaena hippurus, Alejo-Plata et al., 2011).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    At Little Cayman, lionfish reached densities of up to 650 fish ha-1.

    “At this location, they have reached densities of up to 650 fish ha -1 (Frazer et al., 2012)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Frazer et al., 2012 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    After lionfish invaded a mesophotic reef, a shift from coral and sponge communities to algal dominated communities was reported.

    “After lionfish invaded a mesophotic reef, Lesser and Slattery (2011) reported a shift from coral and sponge communities to algal dominated communities.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lesser and Slattery, 2011 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The parameters estimated in this study will help resource managers design removals and other efforts to control invasive lionfish.

    “which will help resource managers design removals and other efforts to control invasive lionfish.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The reproductive characteristics measured for Pterois spp. apply to both P. volitans and P. miles.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Manipulative field studies in the Bahamas have shown that lionfish can reduce recruitment of native reef fish by up to 79%, with predation being the likely mechanism.

    “manipulative field studies in the Bahamas have shown that lionfish can reduce recruitment of native reef fish by up to 79%, with predation being the likely mechanism (Albins and Hixon, 2008).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Albins and Hixon, 2008 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Premisecitation

    Effective management of threats posed by lionfish or any invasive species requires knowledge of how reproductive characteristics support its persistence and spread.

    “Effective management of the threats posed by lionfish, or any invasive species, requires knowledge of how reproductive characteristics support its persistence and spread (Sakai et al., 2001)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sakai et al., 2001 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    POFs were observed only in fish prepared to spawn, as evidenced by the predominance of oocytes in late maturation.

    “POFs were present in 13 (∼10%) of the histologically staged females in the months of January, February, April, June, July, August, September, and they were observed only in fish prepared to spawn as evidenced by the predominance of oocytes in late maturation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Based on the presence of hydrated oocytes, mature female lionfish appeared capable of spawning every 3.6-4.1 days throughout the year.

    “Based on the presence of hydrated oocytes, mature females appeared capable of spawning every 3.6-4.1 days throughout the year”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Morris, 2009 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Increased predation on herbivorous fish was implicated as the cause of the shift because it was not associated with bleaching, fishing, storms and disease.

    “Increased predation on herbivorous fish was implicated as the cause of the shift because it was not associated with bleaching, fishing, storms and disease (Lesser and Slattery, 2011).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lesser and Slattery, 2011 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Morris (2009) reported that female lionfish matured at approximately 175 mm total length or 1 year of age.

    “Morris (2009) reported that females matured at approximately 175 mm total length or 1 year of age”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Morris, 2009 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The proportion of female lionfish with ovaries in spawning condition was higher in summer (June-August).

    “although the proportion of females with ovaries in spawning condition was higher in summer (June-August).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Morris, 2009 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Raw batch fecundity data violated ANCOVA assumptions, so data were log10-transformed and one outlier was removed (Cook's D = 2.67).

    “Raw batch fecundity data violated ANCOVA assumptions, so data were log 10 -transformed, and one outlier was removed (Cook's D = 2.67).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Fish were collected from different sites each day to account for spatial variation at the local scale.

    “Fish were collected from different sites each day in an attempt to account for spatial variation at the local scale.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Counts from subsamples of ovaries were volumetrically scaled to whole ovaries because the gelatinous matrix surrounding hydrated oocytes interfered with gravimetric scaling.

    “Counts from subsamples of ovaries were volumetrically scaled to whole ovaries because the gelatinous matrix surrounding hydrated oocytes interfered with gravimetric scaling.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In P. miles, spawning followed courtship.

    “In P. miles (formerly considered P. volitans), spawning followed courtship (Fishelson, 1975).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fishelson, 1975

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Paired estimates of batch fecundity from left and right ovaries were considered reliable, and their means were incorporated into ANCOVAs with values from single ovaries.

    “considered reliable, and the means of these paired estimates were incorporated into ANCOVAs with values from single ovaries.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Morris (2009) reported that female lionfish released approximately 25000 eggs per spawning event.

    “and released approximately 25000 eggs per spawning event.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Morris, 2009 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The condition of testes in mature male lionfish (fish ≥100 mm total length) exhibited less variation throughout the year.

    “In contrast, the condition of testes in mature males, fish ≥ 100 mm total length, exhibited less variation throughout the year.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Morris, 2009 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Lionfish reproduction was affected by temperature, even though the temperature range (4°C) was much narrower than that experienced by temperate fishes.

    “Thus, it appears that lionfish reproduction was affected by temperature even though the range (4 • C) was much narrower than that experienced by temperate fishes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Hydrated oocytes appear translucent when subjected to transmitted light, allowing them to be easily enumerated.

    “Hydrated oocytes appeared translucent when subjected to transmitted light (Karlou-Riga and Economidis, 1997;McBride et al., 2002), so they were easily enumerated with the assistance of the”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Karlou-Riga and Economidis, 1997 source
    • cites McBride et al., 2002 source
    • cites Ganias et al., 2008

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    Lower batch fecundities for fish forming egg masses may be related to higher fertilization and hatching success for eggs held together in a gelatinous matrix.

    “Lower batch fecundities for fish forming egg masses may be related to higher fertilization and hatching success for eggs held together in a gelatinous matrix (Morris, 2009).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Morris, 2009 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Batch fecundity of the small red scorpionfish (Scorpaena notata) ranged from 6000 to 33000 eggs for individuals from 94 to 152 mm standard length.

    “Batch fecundity of the small red scorpionfish ranged from 6000 to 33000 eggs for individuals from 94 to 152 mm standard length (Muñoz et al., 2005).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Muñoz et al., 2005

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Both lionfish and Scorpaena notata possess cystovarian type II-3 ovaries specialized to produce gelatinous egg masses.

    “Both fish possess cystovarian type II-3 ovaries specialized to produce gelatinous egg masses (Muñoz et al., 2005;Morris, 2009).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Muñoz et al., 2005

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Morris, 2009 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Latitudinal and regional differences in environmental conditions, food supplies, or other biological and ecological factors may result in different values for average length at maturity and other reproductive parameters.

    “Latitudinal and regional differences in environmental conditions, food supplies, or other biological and ecological factors may result in different values for average length at maturity and other reproductive parameters.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Interpretationcitation

    The age range of 0-2 years for lionfish of 190 mm TL bracketed Morris' (2009) estimate of maturity at under 1 year old.

    “which bracketed Morris' (2009) estimate of maturity at under 1 year old”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Morris, 2009 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    Such relatively small differences in reproductive parameters may not be biologically significant, especially for lionfish that mature early.

    “Regardless, such relatively small differences may not be biologically significant, especially for lionfish that mature early (McBride et al., 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites McBride et al., 2012 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The lack of statistically significant differences in egg production between seasons could have been an artifact of low sample size.

    “The lack of statistically significant differences in egg production between seasons could have been an artifact of low sample size”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Red grouper Epinephelus morio can produce 2.3 million eggs.

    “2.3 million eggs for red grouper Epinephelus morio (Collins et al., 2002)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Collins et al., 2002

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Red snapper Lutjanus campechanus can produce 3.4 million eggs.

    “3.4 million eggs for red snapper Lutjanus campechanus (Collins et al., 2001)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Collins et al., 2001

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Other factors, including photoperiod, tidal cycle, and moon phase, also affect spawning cycles.

    “Although food availability and water temperature often represent key cues for spawning, it is likely that other factors, including photoperiod, tidal cycle, and moon phase, also affect spawning cycles (Taylor, 1984;Sala et al., 2003;Heyman et al., 2005).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Taylor, 1984 source
    • cites Sala et al., 2003

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Heyman et al., 2005 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Gag grouper Mycteroperca microlepis can produce up to 865295 eggs per synchronized spawning event.

    “up to 865295 eggs per synchronized spawning event for gag grouper Mycteroperca microlepis (Collins et al., 1998)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Collins et al., 1998

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Morris (2009) estimated spawning frequency of lionfish as every 3.6 days in the Bahamas and 4.1 days in North Carolina.

    “Morris (2009) estimated spawning frequency as every 3.6 days in the Bahamas and 4.1 days in North Carolina.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Morris (2009) source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Maintenance management, or well-planned, targeted lionfish removals, can ameliorate impacts on critical habitats or economically and ecologically important species.

    “maintenance management, or well-planned, targeted lionfish removals, can ameliorate impacts on critical habitats or economically and ecologically important species (Frazer et al., 2012)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Frazer et al., 2012 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Mean mass of lionfish stomach contents was highest in December and September.

    “Data from a complementary study determined that mean mass of lionfish stomach contents were highest in the months of December and September (Edwards, 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Edwards, 2012

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Under ideal conditions, Scorpaenodes littoralis spawned every 2 days over 4-8 months, with one fish spawning 118 times in 8 months, yielding a spawning frequency of ∼2 days.

    “Under ideal conditions, S. littoralis spawned every 2 days over 4-8 months, with one fish spawning 118 times in 8 months, to yield a spawning frequency of ∼2 days (Yoneda et al., 2000).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Yoneda et al., 2000 source
49 of 49

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Information on key life history characteristics for lionfish in the invaded range is sparse.

    “Despite potentially devastating ecological and economic effects, information on key life history characteristics for lionfish in the invaded range is sparse.”
    “but such information is generally lacking for Pterois spp.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The reproductive characteristics measured for Pterois spp. apply to both P. volitans and P. miles.

    “From this point,”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Water temperature at 4.6 m depth from the ICON station on the north side of the island represents the water temperature experienced by lionfish during gonad maturation.

    “To assess the relationship between water temperature and gonad maturation, monthly water temperatures at a depth of 4.6 m were obtained from an Integrated Coral Observing Network (ICON) weather station on the north side of the island.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The histological criteria developed by Grier and Taylor (1998) and Grier et al. (2009) are applicable to lionfish.

    “Maturation status was determined from histological sections using adaptive criteria developed by combining morphological characteristics and underlying regulatory endocrinology (Grier and Taylor, 1998;Grier et al., 2009).”
4 of 4

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • ConsistentF(18, 816) = 4.92reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F (18, 816) = 4.92, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(18, 1010) = 5.49reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F (18, 1010) = 5.49, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(2, 141) = 106.91reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F (2, 141) = 106.91,p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(141, 3203) = 11.22reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F (141, 3203) = 11.22,p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(35, 141) = 1.16reported p = .267 · recomputed p = .269

    “F (35, 141) = 1.16,p = .267”

  • ConsistentF(1, 17) = 19.71reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F (1, 17) = 19.71,p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 17) = 35.54reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F (1, 17) = 35.54,p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 17) = 1.7reported p = .21 · recomputed p = .210

    “F (1, 17) = 1.70,p = .210”

  • ConsistentF(1, 17) = 0.04reported p = .851 · recomputed p = .844

    “F (1, 17) = 0.04, p = .851”

9 of 9

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Self-check results appear here once an independent check has confirmed them.

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

2 of the 43 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 8

  1. Collins, 2002, Characterization of Red Grouper (Serranidae: Epinephelus morio) Reproduction from the Eastern Gulf of Mexico
  2. Collins, 1998, Reproductive patterns, sex ratio, and fecundity in gag, Mycteroperca microlepis (Serranidae), a protogynous grouper from the northeastern Gulf of Mexico, Fish Bull, 96, 415
  3. Everson, 1989, Maturation and reproduction in two Hawaiian eteline snappers, Uku, Aprion virescens, and Onaga, Etelis coruscans, Fish Bull, 87, 877
  4. Ganias, 2008, Automating batch fecundity measurements using digital image analysis systems: a case study in the Iberian sardine,
  5. Hunter, 1985, Measurement of spawning frequency in multiple spawning fishes,, 79
  6. Muñoz, 2001, Reproductive biology of some western Mediterranean scorpaeniformes (Teleostei), Cybium, 25, 393
  7. Sala, 2003, Spawning aggregations and reproductive behavior of reef fishes in the Gulf of California, Bull. Mar. Sci, 72, 103
  8. Schofield, 2013, Pterois Volitans/Miles Point Map

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Gardner, P. G., Frazer, T. K., Jacoby, C. A., & Yanong, R. P. E.
Affiliations
University of Florida (US)
Corresponding author
Gardner, Patrick G.
ORCID
Venue
Frontiers in Marine Science
Publisher
Frontiers Media SA
Published
2015-02-19
Volume
2
ISSN
2296-7745 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3389/fmars.2015.00007
OpenAlex
W2041240857
Semantic Scholar
effe660a1ccb65368606c8f6c87ee236cf0338c9
Cited by
87
References
43
Citations by year
2026: 3 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 7
FWCI
4.83
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
cc-by
Locations
  • Frontiers in Marine Science (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Marine Ecology and Invasive Species
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Physiology › Reproductive biology and impacts on aquatic species
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Nature and Landscape Conservation › Fish Ecology and Management Studies
Keywords
invasive lionfish, Pterois volitans, Pterois miles, reproductive biology, spawning frequency, batch fecundity, size at maturity, gonadosomatic index, gonad development, oocyte number, Little Cayman, invasive species management, Caribbean

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-20.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-20.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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