EEG frequency bands in psychiatric disorders: a review of resting state studies

Newson, Jennifer J.; Thiagarajan, Tara C.

doi:10.3389/fnhum.2018.00521

Cited by 866Neural dynamics and brain functionEEG and Brain-Computer InterfacesFunctional Brain Connectivity Studies

EEG frequency bands in psychiatric disorders: a review of resting state studies

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Newson, Jennifer J., Thiagarajan, Tara C.·2019·Frontiers in Human Neuroscience

DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2018.00521PMC PMC6333694

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Abstract

A significant proportion of the electroencephalography (EEG) literature focuses on differences in historically pre-defined frequency bands in the power spectrum that are typically referred to as alpha, beta, gamma, theta and delta waves. Here, we review 184 EEG studies that report differences in frequency bands in the resting state condition (eyes open and closed) across a spectrum of psychiatric disorders including depression, attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism, addiction, bipolar disorder, anxiety, panic disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) and schizophrenia to determine patterns across disorders. Aggregating across all reported results we demonstrate that characteristic patterns of power change within specific frequency bands are not necessarily unique to any one disorder but show substantial overlap across disorders as well as variability within disorders. In particular, we show that the most dominant pattern of change, across several disorder types including ADHD, schizophrenia and OCD, is power increases across lower frequencies (delta and theta) and decreases across higher frequencies (alpha, beta and gamma). However, a considerable number of disorders, such as PTSD, addiction and autism show no dominant trend for spectral change in any direction. We report consistency and validation scores across the disorders and conditions showing that the dominant result across all disorders is typically only 2.2 times as likely to occur in the literature as alternate results, and typically with less than 250 study participants when summed across all studies reporting this result. Furthermore, the magnitudes of the results were infrequently reported and were typically small at between 20% and 30% and correlated weakly with symptom severity scores. Finally, we discuss the many methodological challenges and limitations relating to such frequency band analysis across the literature. These results caution any interpretation of results from studies that consider only one disorder in isolation, and for the overall potential of this approach for delivering valuable insights in the field of mental health.

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A recent review by Newson and Thiagarajan (2018) revealed that atypical EEG profiles, such as increased power at lower frequencies and decreased power at higher frequencies, seem to be shared by individuals with different conditions (e.g., ADHD, OCD and schizophrenia) and not specific to ADHD.
“A recent review of the literature by Newson and Thiagarajan (2018) revealed that atypical EEG profiles, such as increased power at lower frequencies and decreased power at higher frequencies, seem to be shared by individuals with different conditions (e.g., ADHD, OCD and schizophrenia) and not specific to ADHD.”
From Is autonomic nervous system function atypical in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)? A systematic review of the evidence (2020) · cites this paper as Newson and Thiagarajan (2018)

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Does Filtering Preclude Us from Studying ERP Time-Courses?
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Resting state EEG oscillatory power differences in ADHD college students and their peers
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Quantitative electroencephalography in schizophrenia and depression.
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Peak High-Frequency HRV and Peak Alpha Frequency Higher in PTSD
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Effects of stimulant medications on the EEG of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
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Theta Power in the EEG of Alcoholics
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Restless ‘rest’: intrinsic sensory hyperactivity and disinhibition in post-traumatic stress disorder
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Quantitative electroencephalogram (qEEG) in combat veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
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Comparison of QEEG Findings between Adolescents with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) without Comorbidity and ADHD Comorbid with Internet Gaming Disorder
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Assessing the effects of caffeine and theanine on the maintenance of vigilance during a sustained attention task
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“Furthermore, there is a great deal of intra person variability that can arise both naturally and with ingestion of common substances such as caffeine (Kelly et al., 2008; Foxe et al., 2012; Gonen-Yaacovi et al., 2016) and alcohol (Korucuoglu et al.”
Background
Resting electroencephalogram in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: developmental course and diagnostic value.
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Sex differences in adolescent ADHD: findings from concurrent EEG and EDA
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Differential Resting Quantitative Electroencephalographic Alpha Patterns in Women with Environmental Chemical Intolerance, Depressives, and Normals
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Understanding the Influences of EEG Reference: A Large-Scale Brain Network Perspective
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Electroencephalographic comparison of veterans with combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder and healthy subjects
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Resting-state EEG gamma activity in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
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Linear and non-linear EEG analysis of adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder during a cognitive task.
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DIFFERENCES IN BRAIN FUNCTION BETWEEN RELAPSING AND ABSTAINING ALCOHOL-DEPENDENT PATIENTS, EVALUATED BY EEG MAPPING
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Quantitative EEG in schizophrenia and in response to acute and chronic clozapine treatment
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Neural Variability Quenching Predicts Individual Perceptual Abilities
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Brain Electrical Source Differences between Depressed Subjects and Healthy Controls
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EEG differences in ADHD-combined type during baseline and cognitive tasks
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Aberrant EEG functional connectivity and EEG power spectra in resting state post-traumatic stress disorder: A sLORETA study
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Brain’s alpha activity is highly reduced in euthymic bipolar disorder patients
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Excess beta activity in the EEG of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A disorder of arousal?
Clarke, A. R., Barry, R. J., Dupuy, F. E., McCarthy, R., Selikowitz, M., & Johnstone, S. J. (2013) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2013.04.009 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Resting-state theta band connectivity and graph analysis in generalized social anxiety disorder
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EEG abnormalities in adolescent males with AD/HD
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Increased power of resting-state gamma oscillations in autism spectrum disorder detected by routine electroencephalography
Diessen, E. G. A. L. V., Senders, J. T., Jansen, F. E., Boersma, M., & Bruining, H. (2014) · European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.1007/s00406-014-0527-3 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Associations between prospective symptom changes and slow-wave activity in patients with Internet gaming disorder
Kim, Y. J., Lee, J., Oh, S., Park, M., Jung, H. Y., Sohn, B. K., Choi, S., Kim, D., & Choi, J. (2017) · Medicine · doi:10.1097/md.0000000000006178 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Cognitive restructuring and EEG in major depression
Deldin, P. J., & Chiu, P. H. (2005) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2005.01.003 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
EEG differences between good and poor responders to methylphenidate and dexamphetamine in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
Clarke, A. R., Barry, R. J., McCarthy, R., & Selikowitz, M. (2002) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/s1388-2457(01)00736-2 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Resting-State Neurophysiological Activity Patterns in Young People with ASD, ADHD, and ASD + ADHD
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Quantitative EEG in never-treated schizophrenic patients
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EEG characteristics and visual cognitive function of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
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Interpreting the electrophysiological power spectrum
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EEG mapping in patients with social phobia
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Quantitative EEG analysis in dexamphetamine-responsive adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
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Children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and comorbid oppositional defiant disorder: an EEG analysis
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EEG in adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Clarke, A. R., Barry, R. J., Heaven, P. C. L., McCarthy, R., Selikowitz, M., & Byrne, M. K. (2008) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2008.07.001 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Skull thickness and magnitude of EEG alpha activity
Hagemann, D., Hewig, J. S., Walter, C., & Naumann, E. (2008) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2008.02.010 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Resting EEG in psychosis and at-risk populations — A possible endophenotype?
Ranlund, S. M., Nottage, J. F., Shaikh, M., Dutt, A., Constante, M., Walshe, M., Hall, M., Friston, K. J., Murray, R. M., & Bramon, E. (2014) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2013.12.017 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
QUANTITATIVE EEG ANALYSIS IN OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE DISORDER
Karadağ, F., Oğuzhanoğlu, N. K., Kurt, T., Oğuzhanoğlu, A., Ateşçi, F. Ç., & Özdel, O. İ. (2003) · International Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/00207450390200963 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Alterations in resting-state gamma activity in patients with schizophrenia: a high-density EEG study
Baradits, M., Kakuszi, B., Bálint, S., Fullajtár, M., Mód, L., Bitter, I., & Czobor, P. (2018) · European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.1007/s00406-018-0889-z · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Regional brain electrical activity in posttraumatic stress disorder after motor vehicle accident.
Rabe, S., Beauducel, A., Zöllner, T., Maercker, A. R. A., & Karl, A. (2006) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.115.4.687 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Detrended Fluctuation Analysis of EEG Signals
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Atypical Laterality of Resting Gamma Oscillations in Autism Spectrum Disorders
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Appraisal of Sessional EEG Features as a Correlate of Clinical Changes in an rTMS Treatment of Depression
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Practice advisory: The utility of EEG theta/beta power ratio in ADHD diagnosis
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Increased ongoing neural variability in ADHD
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Executive hypercontrol in obsessive–compulsive disorder: Electrophysiological and neuropsychological indices
Bucci, P., Mucci, A., Volpe, U., Merlotti, E., Galderisi, S., & Maj, M. (2004) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2003.12.031 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
EEG source analysis in obsessive–compulsive disorder
Kopřivová, J., Congedo, M., Horáček, J., Praško, J. P., Raszka, M., Brunovský, M., Kohutova, B., & Höschl, C. (2011) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2011.01.051 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Differential resting-state EEG patterns associated with comorbid depression in Internet addiction
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QEEG Spectral and Coherence Assessment of Autistic Children in Three Different Experimental Conditions
Machado, C., Estévez, M., Leisman, G., Melillo, R. J., Rodríguez‐Rojas, R., DeFina, P. A., Hernández, A., Pérez-Nellar, J., Naranjo, R., Chinchilla, M., et al. (2013) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-013-1909-5 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
CRITICAL REVIEW: THE TECHNIQUE AND APPLICATION OF ELECTRO-ENCEPHALOGRAPHY
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The Effect of Electroencephalogram (EEG) Reference Choice on Information-Theoretic Measures of the Complexity and Integration of EEG Signals
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A shared low-frequency oscillatory rhythm abnormality in resting and sensory gating in schizophrenia
Hong, L. E., Summerfelt, A. T., Mitchell, B. D., O’Donnell, P., & Thaker, G. K. (2011) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2011.07.025 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
EEG activity in girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
Clarke, A. R., Barry, R. J., McCarthy, R., Selikowitz, M., Clarke, D. C., & Croft, R. J. (2003) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/s1388-2457(02)00364-4 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Symptom-specific EEG power correlations in patients with obsessive–compulsive disorder
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Resting-State Neuroimaging and Neuropsychological Findings in Opioid Use Disorder during Abstinence: A Review
Ieong, H. F.-H., & Yuan, Z. (2017) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2017.00169 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
The Magnitude of Trial-By-Trial Neural Variability Is Reproducible over Time and across Tasks in Humans
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Human Brain Rhythms: I. Recording Techniques and Preliminary Results
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Responses to methylphenidate in adolescent AD/HD: Evidence from concurrently recorded autonomic (EDA) and central (EEG and ERP) measures
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Alpha Waves as a Neuromarker of Autism Spectrum Disorder: The Challenge of Reproducibility and Heterogeneity
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Acute atomoxetine effects on the EEG of children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
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Evaluation of resting state gamma power as a response marker in schizophrenia
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Electroencephalogram alpha asymmetry in patients with depressive disorders: current perspectives
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Brief Report: Reduced Temporal-Central EEG Alpha Coherence During Joint Attention Perception in Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Jaime, M., McMahon, C. M., Davidson, B. C., Newell, L. C., Mundy, P. C., & Henderson, H. A. (2015) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-015-2667-3 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Alpha rhythm and hypofrontality in schizophrenia
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Topographic deficits in alpha-range resting EEG activity and steady state visual evoked responses in schizophrenia
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Epileptiform abnormalities and quantitative EEG in children with attention-deficit / hyperactivity disorder
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Sex differences between the combined and inattentive types of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: An EEG perspective
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Age-Related Changes in Resting-State EEG Activity in Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Cross-Sectional Study
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Differentiating Autistic Children with Quantitative Encephalography: A 3-Month Longitudinal Study
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A Matter of Time: The Influence of Recording Context on EEG Spectral Power in Adolescents and Young Adults with ADHD
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EEG differences between good and poor responders to methylphenidate in boys with the inattentive type of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
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Enhanced resting-state oscillations in schizophrenia are associated with decreased synchronization during inattentional blindness
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DYNAMIC SPECTRAL ANALYSIS FINDINGS IN FIRST EPISODE AND CHRONIC SCHIZOPHRENIA
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Coherence Potentials: Loss-Less, All-or-None Network Events in the Cortex
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Functional Connectivity and Quantitative EEG in Women with Alcohol Use Disorders: A Resting-State Study
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Beta Brain Waves as an Index of Alertness
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Quantitative EEG correlates of panic disorder
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DEVELOPING AN INTEGRATED BRAIN, BEHAVIOR AND BIOLOGICAL RESPONSE PROFILE IN POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER (PTSD)
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Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS): from basic mechanisms towards first applications in psychiatry
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Methodological considerations for studying neural oscillations
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EEG spectral analysis in insomnia disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis
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EEG-based emotion recognition using hybrid CNN and LSTM classification
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Is autonomic nervous system function atypical in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)? A systematic review of the evidence
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The Heterogeneity of Mental Health Assessment
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Recommendations and publication guidelines for studies using frequency domain and time‐frequency domain analyses of neural time series
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Alterations in EEG functional connectivity in individuals with depression: A systematic review
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EEG microstate features for schizophrenia classification
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Local field potentials in Parkinson's disease: A frequency-based review
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EEG-Based Measures in At-Risk Mental State and Early Stages of Schizophrenia: A Systematic Review
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Current findings and perspectives on aberrant neural oscillations in schizophrenia
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Two-layer LSTM network-based prediction of epileptic seizures using EEG spectral features
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Resting-state electroencephalography and magnetoencephalography as biomarkers of chronic pain: a systematic review
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A validation of Emotiv EPOC Flex saline for EEG and ERP research
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EEG based emotion recognition using fusion feature extraction method
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Computational Modeling of Electroencephalography and Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Paradigms Indicates a Consistent Loss of Pyramidal Cell Synaptic Gain in Schizophrenia
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Review of electroencephalography signals approaches for mental stress assessment
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Identification of Major Psychiatric Disorders From Resting-State Electroencephalography Using a Machine Learning Approach
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A novel hybrid model in the diagnosis and classification of Alzheimer's disease using EEG signals: Deep ensemble learning (DEL) approach
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Resting-state EEG power differences in autism spectrum disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis
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On the Reliability of the EEG Microstate Approach
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Spectral features based convolutional neural network for accurate and prompt identification of schizophrenic patients
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DISCOVER-EEG: an open, fully automated EEG pipeline for biomarker discovery in clinical neuroscience
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Predicting risk for Alcohol Use Disorder using longitudinal data with multimodal biomarkers and family history: a machine learning study
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Electroencephalogram aperiodic power spectral slope can be reliably measured and predicts ADHD risk in early development
Karalunas, S. L., Ostlund, B. D., Alperin, B. R., Figuracion, M. T., Gustafsson, H., Deming, E., Foti, D., Antovich, D., Dude, J., Nigg, J. T., et al. (2022) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.22228 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Resting state EEG in youth with ASD: age, sex, and relation to phenotype
Neuhaus, E., Lowry, S., Santhosh, M., Kresse, A., Edwards, L. A., Keller, J., Libsack, E. J., Kang, V. Y., Naples, A. J., Jack, A., et al. (2021) · Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders · doi:10.1186/s11689-021-09390-1 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
STGATE: Spatial-temporal graph attention network with a transformer encoder for EEG-based emotion recognition
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Abnormal Spontaneous Gamma Power Is Associated With Verbal Learning and Memory Dysfunction in Schizophrenia
Tanaka‐Koshiyama, K., Koshiyama, D., Miyakoshi, M., Joshi, Y. B., Molina, J. L., Sprock, J., BRAFF, D. L., & Light, G. A. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00832 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Globally elevated excitation–inhibition ratio in children with autism spectrum disorder and below-average intelligence
Manyukhina, V. O., Prokofyev, A. O., Galuta, I. A., Goiaeva, D. E., Obukhova, T. S., Schneiderman, J. F., Altukhov, D., Stroganova, T. A., & Orekhova, E. V. (2022) · Molecular Autism · doi:10.1186/s13229-022-00498-2 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Aperiodic Neural Activity is a Better Predictor of Schizophrenia than Neural Oscillations
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Electroencephalography and Event-Related Potential Biomarkers in Individuals at Clinical High Risk for Psychosis
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The Role of the Dorsal–Lateral Prefrontal Cortex in Reward Sensitivity During Approach–Avoidance Conflict
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Multifractal and Entropy-Based Analysis of Delta Band Neural Activity Reveals Altered Functional Connectivity Dynamics in Schizophrenia
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Overcoming Rest–Task Divide—Abnormal Temporospatial Dynamics and Its Cognition in Schizophrenia
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Public health risks associated with chronic, low-level domoic acid exposure: A review of the evidence
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Aberrated Multidimensional EEG Characteristics in Patients with Generalized Anxiety Disorder: A Machine-Learning Based Analysis Framework
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A multiple frequency bands parallel spatial–temporal 3D deep residual learning framework for EEG-based emotion recognition
Miao, M., Zheng, L., Xu, B., Yang, Z., & Hu, W. (2022) · Biomedical Signal Processing and Control · doi:10.1016/j.bspc.2022.104141 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
EEG-Based Classification of Internally- and Externally-Directed Attention in an Augmented Reality Paradigm
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Differentiating Between Alzheimer’s Disease and Frontotemporal Dementia Based on the Resting-State Multilayer EEG Network
Si, Y., He, R., Jiang, L., Yao, D., Zhang, H., Xu, P., Ma, X., Yu, L., & Li, F. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering · doi:10.1109/tnsre.2023.3329174 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
A Systematic Review of Aperiodic Neural Activity in Clinical Investigations
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Electroencephalographic Abnormalities in Autism Spectrum Disorder: Characteristics and Therapeutic Implications
Precenzano, F., Parisi, L., Lanzara, V., Vetri, L., Operto, F. F., Pastorino, G. M. G., Ruberto, M. F., Messina, G., Risoleo, M. C., Santoro, C., et al. (2020) · Medicina · doi:10.3390/medicina56090419 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
A framework For brain atlases: Lessons from seizure dynamics
Revell, A. Y., Silva, A. B., Arnold, T. C., Stein, J. M., Das, S. R., Shinohara, R. T., Bassett, D. S., Litt, B., & Davis, K. A. (2022) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2022.118986 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Relationship between Spatiotemporal Dynamics of the Brain at Rest and Self-Reported Spontaneous Thoughts: An EEG Microstate Approach
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Correlation Between Resting Theta Power and Cognitive Performance in Patients With Schizophrenia
Cao, Y., Han, C., Peng, X., Su, Z., Liu, G., Xie, Y., Zhang, Y., Liu, J., Zhang, P., Dong, W., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2022.853994 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Aperiodic neural activity is a better predictor of schizophrenia than neural oscillationsPreprint
Peterson, E. J., Rosen, B. Q., Belger, A., Voytek, B., & Campbell, A. M. (2017) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/113449 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Classification of Anxiety Disorders using Machine Learning Methods: A Literature Review
Muhammad, A., Ashjan, B., Ghufran, M., Taghreed, S., Nada, A., Nada, A., & Maryam, A. (2020) · Insights of Biomedical Research · doi:10.36959/584/455 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Two-Stage Approach With Combination of Outlier Detection Method and Deep Learning Enhances Automatic Epileptic Seizure Detection
Grubov, V. V., Nazarikov, S. I., Kurkin, S., Utyashev, N., Andrikov, D., Karpov, O., & Hramov, A. (2024) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2024.3453039 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
The Electrical Aftermath: Brain Signals of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Filtered Through a Clinical Lens
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Oscillotherapeutics – Time-targeted interventions in epilepsy and beyond
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Authors: Newson, J. J., & Thiagarajan, T. C.
Affiliations: Sapien Labs (US)
Corresponding author: Thiagarajan, Tara C.
ORCID: Newson, Jennifer J.
Thiagarajan, Tara C.
Venue: Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
Publisher: Frontiers Media SA
Published: 2019-01-09
Volume: 12
Pages: 521-521
ISSN: 1662-5161 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2018.00521
PMC: PMC6333694
OpenAlex: W2908954394
Cited by: 863
References: 267
Citations by year: 2026: 127 · 2025: 134 · 2024: 158 · 2023: 147 · 2022: 111 · 2021: 96 · 2020: 69 · 2019: 19 · 2017: 1
FWCI: 9.36
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: gold
doi.org
Licence: cc-by
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (vor)
Locations: Frontiers in Human Neuroscience (publishedVersion, cc-by)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural dynamics and brain function
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › EEG and Brain-Computer Interfaces
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Functional Brain Connectivity Studies
Keywords: EEG frequency bands, resting-state EEG, mental illness, EEG spectral power, depression, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorder, addiction, bipolar disorder, anxiety, panic disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, schizophrenia, symptom severity

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EEG frequency bands in psychiatric disorders: a review of resting state studies

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