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Menstrual cycle influence on cognitive function and emotion processing—from a reproductive perspective
Open accessAbstract
The menstrual cycle has attracted research interest ever since the 1930s. For many researchers the menstrual cycle is an excellent model of ovarian steroid influence on emotion, behavior, and cognition. Over the past years methodological improvements in menstrual cycle studies have been noted, and this review summarizes the findings of methodologically sound menstrual cycle studies in healthy women. Whereas the predominant hypotheses of the cognitive field state that sexually dimorphic cognitive skills that favor men are improved during menstrual cycle phases with low estrogen and that cognitive skills that favor women are improved during cycle phases with increased estrogen and/or progesterone, this review has not found sufficient evidence to support any of these hypotheses. Mental rotation has gained specific interest in this aspect, but a meta-analysis yielded a standardized mean difference in error rate of 1.61 (95% CI -0.35 to 3.57), suggesting, at present, no favor of an early follicular phase improvement in mental rotation performance. Besides the sexually dimorphic cognitive skills, studies exploring menstrual cycle effects on tasks that probe prefrontal cortex function, for instance verbal or spatial working memory, have also been reviewed. While studies thus far are few, results at hand suggest improved performance at times of high estradiol levels. Menstrual cycle studies on emotional processing, on the other hand, tap into the emotional disorders of the luteal phase, and may be of relevance for women with premenstrual disorders. Although evidence at present is limited, it is suggested that emotion recognition, consolidation of emotional memories, and fear extinction is modulated by the menstrual cycle in women. With the use of functional magnetic resonance imaging, several studies report changes in brain reactivity across the menstrual cycle, most notably increased amygdala reactivity in the luteal phase. Thus, to the extent that behavioral changes have been demonstrated over the course of the menstrual cycle, the best evidence suggests that differences in sexually dimorphic tasks are small and difficult to replicate. However, emotion-related changes are more consistently found, and are better associated with progesterone than with estradiol such that high progesterone levels are associated with increased amygdala reactivity and increased emotional memory.
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“The results are in line with the conclusions of researchers who argued that cognitive performance does not change throughout the cycle [10,28–32,34].”
From Menstrual cycle effects on cognitive performance: A meta-analysis (2025) · cites this paper as [34]
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“one prior meta-analysis that examined a narrow set of cognitions using similar methods (mental rotation tasks) also did not find significant cycle differences [34].”
From Menstrual cycle effects on cognitive performance: A meta-analysis (2025) · cites this paper as [34]
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“Sample sizes are typically small [27,34], which limits generalizability of any one study.”
From Menstrual cycle effects on cognitive performance: A meta-analysis (2025) · cites this paper as [34]
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Cites
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“Over the past years, the menstrual cycle influence on emotional processing, emotional memory, and fear conditioning has gained increasing interest.”
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“Findings on a whole range of other tasks evaluating visuospatial ability is presented in Table 2.”
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Prevalence, incidence and stability of premenstrual dysphoric disorder in the community
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Estrogen-related variations in human spatial and articulatory-motor skills
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BackgroundInfluentialDiverse Actions of Ovarian Steroids in the Serotonin Neural System
Bethea, C. L., Lu, N. Z., Gundlah, C., & Streicher, J. M. (2002) · Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1006/frne.2001.0225 · Cited by 497
Sex hormones affect spatial abilities during the menstrual cycle.
Hausmann, M., Slabbekoorn, D., van Goozen, S. H. M., Cohen‐Kettenis, P. T., & Güntürkün, O. (2000) · Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.1037//0735-7044.114.6.1245 · Cited by 423
The length and variability of the human menstrual cycle
Chiazze, L. (1968) · JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association · doi:10.1001/jama.1968.03140060001001 · Cited by 374 · cited 2×
“Oligomenorrhea is defined as menstrual cycle length of 35 days or more (Treloar et al., 1967; Chiazze et al., 1968), and is in turn one of the www.frontiersin.org November 2014 | Volume 8 | Article 380 | 1 criteria for the polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) (Rotterdam ESHRE/ASRM-Sponsored PCOS…”
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“…receptors have emerged as potential mediators of rapid non-genomic effects of estradiol and progesterone in rodent brain, namely G proteincoupled estrogen receptors (GPERs) which are responsive to estradiol in the hippocampus, hypothalamus, cortex and substantia nigra (Hazell et al., 2009).”
BackgroundHormonal Cycle Modulates Arousal Circuitry in Women Using Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Goldstein, J. M., Jerram, M., Poldrack, R., Ahern, T., Kennedy, D. N., Seidman, L. J., & Makris, N. (2005) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2239-05.2005 · Cited by 368
Zeidan, M. A., Igoe, S. A., Linnman, C., Vitalo, A., Levine, J. B., Klibanski, A., Goldstein, J. M., & Milad, M. R. (2011) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.05.016 · Cited by 354
Sex hormones affect spatial abilities during the menstrual cycle.
Hausmann, M., Slabbekoorn, D., van Goozen, S. H. M., et al. (2000) · Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.1037/0735-7044.114.6.1245 · Cited by 343 · cited 8×
“Again, a number of methodological concerns have been identified in the studies; several studies suffer from low power (Hausmann et al., 2000; Solis-Ortiz and Corsi-Cabrera, 2008), two studies report on a visuospatial composite score (Hampson, 1990; Gordon and Lee, 1993), and one study involved…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialImplicit memory varies across the menstrual cycle: estrogen effects in young women
Maki, P. M., Rich, J. B., & Rosenbaum, R. S. (2002) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/s0028-3932(01)00126-9 · Cited by 342 · cited 9×
“…and D’Esposito, 2011b 24 NC 1–2/11–12 Verbal working memory No effect of phase Konrad et al., 2008 12 NC 1–3/19–23 Synonym generation No effect of phase 0.04–0.23 Maki et al., 2002 16 NC 1–3/19–24 Verbal fluency ↑ midluteal 0.56 Implicit verbal memory ↑ midluteal 0.72 Explicit verbal memory No…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialEstrogen Shapes Dopamine-Dependent Cognitive Processes: Implications for Women's Health
Jacobs, E., & D'Esposito, M. (2011) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.6394-10.2011 · Cited by 342
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Self-citationThe influence of gonadal hormones on conditioned fear extinction in healthy humans
Milad, M. R., Zeidan, M. A., Contero, A., Pitman, R. K., Klibanski, A., Rauch, S. L., & Goldstein, J. M. (2010) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.04.030 · Cited by 320
O’Brien, P. M. S., Bäckström, T. C., Brown, C., Dennerstein, L., Endicott, J., Epperson, C. N., Eriksson, E., Freeman, E. W., Halbreich, U. M., ISMAIL, K. M. K., et al. (2011) · Archives of Women s Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s00737-010-0201-3 · Cited by 302
Blockade of Estrogen by Hormonal Contraceptives Impairs Fear Extinction in Female Rats and Women
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Bixo, M., Andersson, A., Winblad, B. G., Purdy, R. H., & Bäckström, T. C. (1997) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/s0006-8993(97)00455-1 · Cited by 280 · cited 1×
“In fact, animal studies and post-mortem studies in reproductive and postmenopausal women indicate that estradiol and progesterone are accumulated in the brain (Bixo et al., 1986, 1995, 1997), with the highest concentration of progesterone found in the amygdala (Bixo et al., 1997).”
BackgroundProgesterone selectively increases amygdala reactivity in women
van Wingen, G. A., van Broekhoven, F., Verkes, R. J., Petersson, K. M., Bäckström, T., Buitelaar, J. K., & Fernández, G. (2008) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/sj.mp.4002030 · Cited by 273 · cited 3×
“Hence, emotion recognition accuracy appear poorer in the luteal phase, specifically for the negative emotional stimuli (Derntl et al., 2008b) and these findings are corroborated by a report on decreased facial recognition accuracy upon acute progesterone administration (van Wingen et al., 2007).”
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Variations in memory function and sex steroid hormones across the menstrual cycle
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“…documented any significant findings across the menstrual cycle and no consistent pattern, according to the above hypotheses, emerges (Hampson, 1990; Phillips and Sherwin, 1992; Gordon and Lee, 1993; Maki et al., 2002; Rosenberg and Park, 2002; Halari et al., 2005; Konrad et al., 2008; Mordecai et…”
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“…not only in verbal processing but also in spatial judgment (Chen et al., 2012; Seghier, 2013) and according to the authors, the increased reactivity may reflect an increased need to recruit this area to solve the task at hand during the luteal phase (Schoning et al., 2007; Dietrich et al., 2001).”
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LENTON, E. A., LANDGREN, B., & SEXTON, L. (1984) · BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology · doi:10.1111/j.1471-0528.1984.tb04831.x · Cited by 239 · cited 4×
“The menstrual cycle length decreases with advancing age (Lenton et al., 1984a), and approximately 7% of menstrual cycles are shorter than 26 days (Brodin et al., 2008).”
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“…not only in verbal processing but also in spatial judgment (Chen et al., 2012; Seghier, 2013) and according to the authors, the increased reactivity may reflect an increased need to recruit this area to solve the task at hand during the luteal phase (Schoning et al., 2007; Dietrich et al., 2001).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialVerbal and spatial functions across the menstrual cycle in healthy young women
Rosenberg, L., & Park, S. (2002) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/s0306-4530(01)00083-x · Cited by 226 · cited 9×
“…consistent pattern, according to the above hypotheses, emerges (Hampson, 1990; Phillips and Sherwin, 1992; Gordon and Lee, 1993; Maki et al., 2002; Rosenberg and Park, 2002; Halari et al., 2005; Konrad et al., 2008; Mordecai et al., 2008; Solis-Ortiz and Corsi-Cabrera, 2008; Hatta and Nagaya,…”
BackgroundInfluentialOrbitofrontal cortex activity related to emotional processing changes across the menstrual cycle
Protopopescu, X., Pan, H., Altemus, M. M., Tüscher, O., Polanecsky, M., McEwen, B. S., Silbersweig, D., & Stern, E. R. (2005) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0502818102 · Cited by 224
Effects of Menstrual Cycle Phase on Face Preferences
Jones, B. C., DeBruine, L. M., Perrett, D. I., Little, A. C., Feinberg, D. R., & Smith, M. J. L. (2008) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-007-9268-y · Cited by 212
ISPMD consensus on the management of premenstrual disorders
Consensus Group of the International Society for Premenstrual Disorders, Nevatte, T., O’Brien, P. M. S., Bäckström, T., Brown, C., Dennerstein, L., Endicott, J., Epperson, C. N., Eriksson, E., Freeman, E. W., et al. (2013) · Archives of Women s Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s00737-013-0346-y · Cited by 211
Bixo, M., Ba¨ckstro¨m, T., Winblad, B. G., & Andersson, A. (1995) · The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology · doi:10.1016/0960-0760(95)00179-4 · Cited by 205 · cited 1×
“In fact, animal studies and post-mortem studies in reproductive and postmenopausal women indicate that estradiol and progesterone are accumulated in the brain (Bixo et al., 1986, 1995, 1997), with the highest concentration of progesterone found in the amygdala (Bixo et al., 1997).”
BackgroundEmotion recognition accuracy in healthy young females is associated with cycle phase
Derntl, B., Kryspin‐Exner, I., Fernbach, E., Moser, E., & Habel, U. (2007) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2007.09.006 · Cited by 202
Facial emotion recognition and amygdala activation are associated with menstrual cycle phase
Derntl, B., Windischberger, C., Robinson, S., Lamplmayr, E., Kryspin‐Exner, I., Gur, R. C., Moser, E., & Habel, U. (2008) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.04.014 · Cited by 197
Allopregnanolone inhibits learning in the Morris water maze
Johansson, I., Birzniece, V., Lindblad, C., Olsson, T., & Bäckström, T. C. (2002) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/s0006-8993(02)02414-9 · Cited by 193 · cited 1×
“As GABA is the major inhibitory transmitter in the central nervous system, acute administration of allopregnanolone has sedative, anxiolytic, anti-convulsant properties but may also negatively influence cognitive function (Johansson et al., 2002; Kask et al., 2008a; Melcangi et al., 2011).”
BackgroundEstrogen and cognitive functioning in women: Lessons we have learned.
Sherwin, B. B. (2011) · Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.1037/a0025539 · Cited by 193
LENTON, E. A., LANDGREN, B., SEXTON, L., & HARPER, R. (1984) · BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology · doi:10.1111/j.1471-0528.1984.tb04830.x · Cited by 190
Menstrual cycle modulation of medial temporal activity evoked by negative emotion
Andreano, J. M., & Cahill, L. F. (2010) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.07.011 · Cited by 187
Effects of menstrual cycle phase and oral contraceptive use on verbal memory.
Mordecai, K. L., Rubin, L., & Maki, P. (2008) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2008.03.006 · Cited by 181 · cited 9×
“…and Overman, 1998 27 NC 3–4/21–22 Rod and Frame No effect of phase 0.18 Object location (Silverman) No effect of phase 0.35 Water Level No effect of phase 0.09 Mordecai et al., 2008 16 NC/20 OC 2–4/20–22 Brief Visuospatial Memory Test No effect of phase or OC 0.13 Solis-Ortiz and…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelective serotonin reuptake inhibitors for premenstrual syndrome.
Marjoribanks, J., Brown, J., O'Brien, P., & Wyatt, K. (2013) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd001396.pub3 · Cited by 180
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Bäckström, T., Haage, D., Löfgren, M., Johansson, I. M., Strömberg, J., Nyberg, S., Andréen, L., Ossewaarde, L., van Wingen, G. A., Turkmen, S., et al. (2011) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.03.061 · Cited by 169
Epting, L. K., & Overman, W. (1998) · Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.1037//0735-7044.112.6.1304 · Cited by 164 · cited 9×
“The grand majority of studies included employed either saliva or serum concentrations of hormones, but two studies relied on LH detection only (Epting and Overman, 1998; Pletzer et al., 2011) or basal body temperature (Solis-Ortiz et al.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialEffects of estrogen variation on neural correlates of emotional response inhibition
Amin, Z., Epperson, C. N., Constable, R. T., & Canli, T. (2006) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.03.013 · Cited by 163
Guerra‐Araiza, C., Cruz, O. V., González‐Arenas, A., Chavira, R., & Camacho‐Arroyo, I. (2003) · Journal of Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1046/j.1365-2826.2003.01088.x · Cited by 162 · cited 1×
“While human studies are not available for progesterone receptors, animal data suggest that progesterone receptors are also distributed throughout the amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus, thalamus, and the frontal cortex (Kato et al., 1994; Guerra-Araiza et al., 2000, 2002, 2003).”
BackgroundEffects of HTR1A C(−1019)G on Amygdala Reactivity and Trait Anxiety
Fakra, E., Hyde, L. W., Gorka, A., Fisher, P. M., Muñoz, K. E., Kimak, M., Halder, I., Ferrell, R. E., Manuck, S. B., & Hariri, A. R. (2009) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.66.1.33 · Cited by 159 · cited 1×
“This is in parallel to the increased emotion-induced amygdala reactivity found in non-depressed, non-anxious healthy carriers of the short version of the serotonin transporter promoter length polymorphism (Hariri et al., 2002; Fakra et al., 2009).”
BackgroundMenstrual cycle modulation of the relationship between cortisol and long-term memory
Andreano, J. M., Arjomandi, H., & Cahill, L. F. (2008) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.03.009 · Cited by 156
Neuroactive steroids: focus on human brain
Melcangi, R. C., Panzica, G., & García‐Segura, L. M. (2011) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.06.024 · Cited by 149 · cited 2×
“Neurosteroids potentiate the GABAA receptor, where they increase hyperpolarization and act in a similar manner to barbiturates and benzodiazepines (Melcangi et al., 2011).”
BackgroundGene Expression of Progesterone Receptor Isoforms in the Rat Brain
Kato, J., Hirata, S., Nozawa, A., & Yamada-Mouri, N. (1994) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1006/hbeh.1994.1043 · Cited by 149 · cited 1×
“While human studies are not available for progesterone receptors, animal data suggest that progesterone receptors are also distributed throughout the amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus, thalamus, and the frontal cortex (Kato et al., 1994; Guerra-Araiza et al., 2000, 2002, 2003).”
BackgroundColzato, L. S., Hertsig, G., van den Wildenberg, W. P. M., & Hommel, B. (2010) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.02.029 · Cited by 143
Halari, R., Hines, M., Kumari, V., Mehrotra, R., Wheeler, M., Ng, V., & Sharma, T. (2005) · Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.1037/0735-7044.119.1.104 · Cited by 143 · cited 8×
“…2008), multiple test sessions in individual subjects (Rosenberg and Park, 2002; Solis-Ortiz and Corsi-Cabrera, 2008), composite scores by which specific task performance may be disguised (Gordon and Lee, 1993), or used unwisely chosen time-frames for their assessments (Halari et al., 2005).”
BackgroundInfluentialGingnell, M., Engman, J., Frick, A., Moby, L., Wikström, J., Fredrikson, M., & Poromaa, I. S. (2012) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.11.006 · Cited by 143
Self-citationConway, C. A., Jones, B. C., DeBruine, L. M., Welling, L. L. M., Smith, M. J. L., Perrett, D. I., Sharp, M. A., & Al‐Dujaili, E. A. S. (2006) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2006.10.002 · Cited by 143
How Progesterone Impairs Memory for Biologically Salient Stimuli in Healthy Young Women
van Wingen, G. A., van Broekhoven, F., Verkes, R. J., Petersson, K. M., Bäckström, T. C., Buitelaar, J. K., & Fernández, G. (2007) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.1715-07.2007 · Cited by 142 · cited 3×
“Hence, emotion recognition accuracy appear poorer in the luteal phase, specifically for the negative emotional stimuli (Derntl et al., 2008b) and these findings are corroborated by a report on decreased facial recognition accuracy upon acute progesterone administration (van Wingen et al., 2007).”
BackgroundCortisol and memory retrieval in women: influence of menstrual cycle and oral contraceptives
Kuhlmann, S., & Wolf, O. T. (2005) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-005-0143-z · Cited by 142 · cited 6×
“…memory (narrative) ± CPS No effect of stress or cycle phase on recall Felmingham et al., 2012 56 NC High P/low P c.s. Emotional memory (IAPS) ± CPS ↑ memory during stress in high P Kuhlmann and Wolf, 2005 27 NC/20 OC 2–4/20–24 Cortisol/placebo Emotional memory (negative/neutral words) No…”
BackgroundInfluentialEpting, L. K., & Overman, W. (1998) · Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.1037/0735-7044.112.6.1304 · Cited by 135
The effect of menstruation on cognitive and perceptual-motor behavior: a review
Sommer, B. (1973) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/00006842-197311000-00007 · Cited by 134
No difference in cognitive performance between phases of the menstrual cycle
Gordon, H. W. (1993) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/0306-4530(93)90045-m · Cited by 132 · cited 13×
“…2008), multiple test sessions in individual subjects (Rosenberg and Park, 2002; Solis-Ortiz and Corsi-Cabrera, 2008), composite scores by which specific task performance may be disguised (Gordon and Lee, 1993), or used unwisely chosen time-frames for their assessments (Halari et al., 2005).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialGABA receptors, progesterone and premenstrual dysphoric disorder
Poromaa, I. S., Smith, S. S., & Gulinello, M. E. (2003) · Archives of Women s Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s00737-002-0147-1 · Cited by 132
Sex differences in the regulation of progesterone receptor isoforms expression in the rat brain
Guerra‐Araiza, C., Coyoy-Salgado, A., & Camacho‐Arroyo, I. (2002) · Brain Research Bulletin · doi:10.1016/s0361-9230(02)00845-6 · Cited by 131 · cited 1×
“While human studies are not available for progesterone receptors, animal data suggest that progesterone receptors are also distributed throughout the amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus, thalamus, and the frontal cortex (Kato et al., 1994; Guerra-Araiza et al., 2000, 2002, 2003).”
BackgroundEffects of hormonal contraceptives on mental rotation and verbal fluency
Griksiene, R., & Ruksenas, O. (2011) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2011.03.001 · Cited by 128 · cited 14×
“Again, a number of methodological concerns have been identified in the studies; several studies suffer from low power (Hausmann et al., 2000; Solis-Ortiz and Corsi-Cabrera, 2008), two studies report on a visuospatial composite score (Hampson, 1990; Gordon and Lee, 1993), and one study involved repeated, daily testings…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialGuapo, V. G., Graeff, F. G., Zani, A. C. T., Labate, C. M., dos Reis, R. M., & Del‐Ben, C. M. (2009) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.02.007 · Cited by 123
Endometrial Pinopodes and Uterine Receptivity
Nikas, G., & Makrigiannakis, A. (2003) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1196/annals.1290.042 · Cited by 115 · cited 2×
“Progesterone, at this stage, is needed for endometrial preparation for implantation, in case of conception, and the progesterone peak on menstrual cycle day 21 (or LH +8) coincides with the endometrial implantation window on menstrual cycle day 21 (LH +8) (Nikas and Makrigiannakis, 2003).”
BackgroundInfluentialFerree, N. K., Kamat, R., & Cahill, L. (2011) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2011.02.003 · Cited by 114
The contribution of the adrenal gland to the total amount of progesterone produced in the female rat
Fajer, A. B., Holzbauer, M., & Newport, H. M. (1971) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jphysiol.1971.sp009422 · Cited by 114
Becker, D., Creutzfeldt, O. D., Schwibbe, M., & Wuttke, W. (1982) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/0306-4530(82)90057-9 · Cited by 112 · cited 8×
“…compared to the luteal phase, the study by Becker and colleagues had an unbalanced longitudinal design, and Pletzer and colleagues did not distinguish between the early and late follicular phase, hence the role of low estradiol was not entirely captured (Becker et al., 1982; Pletzer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialGingnell, M., Morell, A., Bannbers, E., Wikström, J., & Poromaa, I. S. (2012) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.07.005 · Cited by 112
Self-citationIntlekofer, K. A., & Petersen, S. L. (2010) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.10.051 · Cited by 110 · cited 1×
“Progesterone, on the other hand, has been reported to bind to the progesterone receptor membrane component 1 (PGRMC1) in the cerebellum, cortical regions, hippocampus, and hypothalamic nuclei (Intlekofer and Petersen, 2011).”
BackgroundOral contraceptive usage alters the effects of cortisol on implicit fear learning
Merz, C. J., Tabbert, K., Schweckendiek, J., Klucken, T., Vaitl, D., Stark, R. M., & Wolf, O. T. (2012) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.09.001 · Cited by 107
Estradiol concentrations and working memory performance in women of reproductive age
Hampson, E., & Morley, E. E. (2013) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2013.07.020 · Cited by 107
The association between menstrual cycle and traumatic memories
Bryant, R. A., Felmingham, K. L., Silove, D., Creamer, M., O'Donnell, M., & McFarlane, A. C. (2011) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2010.10.049 · Cited by 105
Progesterone at encoding predicts subsequent emotional memoryPreprint
Ertman, N., Andreano, J. M., & Cahill, L. F. (2011) · Learning & Memory · doi:10.1101/lm.023267.111 · Cited by 102
Association of menstrual cycle phase with the core components of empathy
Derntl, B., Hack, R., Kryspin‐Exner, I., & Habel, U. (2012) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.10.009 · Cited by 102
Soni, M., Curran, V. H., & Kamboj, S. K. (2013) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2013.04.003 · Cited by 102
Segebladh, B., Borgström, A., Nyberg, S., Bixo, M., & Poromaa, I. S. (2009) · American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology · doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2009.03.016 · Cited by 100
Brodin, T., Bergh, T., Berglund, L., Hadziosmanovic, N., & Holte, J. (2008) · Fertility and Sterility · doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2007.09.036 · Cited by 98 · cited 3×
“The menstrual cycle length decreases with advancing age (Lenton et al., 1984a), and approximately 7% of menstrual cycles are shorter than 26 days (Brodin et al., 2008).”
BackgroundInfluentialKornstein, S. G., Harvey, A. T., Rush, A. J., Wisniewski, S. R., Trivedi, M. H., Svikis, D. S., McKenzie, N., Bryan, C. J., & Harley, R. M. (2005) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291704004106 · Cited by 96 · cited 1×
“…the female bias for developing these disorders appear at menarche (suggesting activational effects of ovarian steroids) (Kessler et al., 1993), but also because many women with these disorders complain of a premenstrual worsening (Sigmon et al., 2000; Kornstein et al., 2005; Nillni et al., 2012).”
BackgroundProgesterone receptor isoforms expression pattern in the rat brain during the estrotts cycle
Guerra‐Araiza, C., Cerbón, M. A., Morimoto, S., & Camacho‐Arroyo, I. (2000) · Life Sciences · doi:10.1016/s0024-3205(00)00497-5 · Cited by 96 · cited 1×
“While human studies are not available for progesterone receptors, animal data suggest that progesterone receptors are also distributed throughout the amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus, thalamus, and the frontal cortex (Kato et al., 1994; Guerra-Araiza et al., 2000, 2002, 2003).”
BackgroundProgestins influence motivation, reward, conditioning, stress, and/or response to drugs of abuse
Frye, C. A. (2006) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2006.07.033 · Cited by 95
Ovarian Cycle Effects on Immediate Reward Selection Bias in Humans: A Role for Estradiol
Smith, C. T., Sierra, Y., Oppler, S. H., & Boettiger, C. A. (2014) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0014-14.2014 · Cited by 93
Menstrual Cycle Phase Effects on Memory and Stroop Task Performance
Hatta, T., & Nagaya, K. (2009) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-008-9445-7 · Cited by 90 · cited 3×
“As seen in Table 3, relatively few studies have documented any significant findings across the menstrual cycle and no consistent pattern, according to the above hypotheses, emerges (Hampson, 1990; Phillips and Sherwin, 1992; Gordon and Lee, 1993; Maki et al., 2002; Rosenberg and Park, 2002; Halari et al., 2005; Konrad…”
BackgroundInfluentialSex hormones and mental rotation: an intensive longitudinal investigation.
Courvoisier, D., Renaud, O., Geiser, C., Paschke, K., Gaudy, K., & Jordan, K. (2013) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.12.007 · Cited by 89 · cited 5×
“However, emotion-related changes are more consistently found, and are better associated with progesterone than with estradiol such that high progesterone levels are associated with increased amygdala reactivity and increased emotional memory.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSolís-Ortiz, S., & Corsi‐Cabrera, M. (2008) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.04.003 · Cited by 86 · cited 11×
“While Solis-Ortiz and co-workers initially reported on improved performance in the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test during the early follicular and early luteal phase (Solis-Ortiz et al., 2004), they later failed to replicate this finding (Solis-Ortiz and Corsi-Cabrera, 2008).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialWorking memory for emotional facial expressions: Role of the estrogen in young women
Gasbarri, A., Pompili, A., d’Onofrio, A., Cifariello, A., Tavares, M. C. H., & Tomaz, C. A. B. (2008) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.04.007 · Cited by 84
Menstrual-cycle dependent fluctuations in ovarian hormones affect emotional memory
Bayer, J., Schultz, H., Gamer, M., & Sommer, T. (2014) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2014.01.017 · Cited by 81
Hoyer, J., Burmann, I., Kieseler, M., Vollrath, F., Hellrung, L., Arélin, K., Roggenhofer, E., Villringer, A., & Sacher, J. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0059780 · Cited by 80
Neural Mechanisms of Attentional Reorienting in Three-Dimensional Space
Chen, Q., Weidner, R., Vossel, S., Weiss, P. H., & Fink, G. R. (2012) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.1772-12.2012 · Cited by 79 · cited 1×
“Angular gyrus is involved not only in verbal processing but also in spatial judgment (Chen et al., 2012; Seghier, 2013) and according to the authors, the increased reactivity may reflect an increased need to recruit this area to solve the task at hand during the luteal phase (Schoning et al., 2007;…”
BackgroundDynamic changes in functional cerebral connectivity of spatial cognition during the menstrual cycle
Weis, S., Hausmann, M., Stoffers, B., & Sturm, W. (2011) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.21126 · Cited by 77 · cited 2×
“…No effect of phase or OC 0.13 Solis-Ortiz and Corsi-Cabrera, 2008 9 NC 1–2/13–14/20–21/24–25 Hidden Figures Test No effect of phase Localization Test ↓ early follicular Weis et al., 2011 14 NC 1–3/9–11/21–23 Figure comparison test No effect of phase Hausmann et al., 2000 8 NC 2/22 Hidden…”
BackgroundInfluentialSolís-Ortiz, S., Guevara, M. Á., & Corsi‐Cabrera, M. (2004) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2003.10.007 · Cited by 74 · cited 2×
“The grand majority of studies included employed either saliva or serum concentrations of hormones, but two studies relied on LH detection only (Epting and Overman, 1998; Pletzer et al., 2011) or basal body temperature (Solis-Ortiz et al., 2004; Solis-Ortiz and Corsi-Cabrera, 2008), respectively.”
BackgroundResultLuteal-Phase Accentuation of Acoustic Startle Response in Women with Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder
Epperson, C. N., Pittman, B. P., Czarkowski, K. A., Stiklus, S. M., Krystal, J. H., & Grillon, C. (2007) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1301351 · Cited by 73
The impact of progesterone on memory consolidation of threatening images in women
Felmingham, K. L., Fong, W. C., & Bryant, R. A. (2012) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.03.026 · Cited by 73
Allopregnanolone impairs episodic memory in healthy women
Kask, K., Bäckström, T. C., Nilsson, L., & Poromaa, I. S. (2008) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-008-1150-7 · Cited by 72
Bixo, M., Bäckström, T. C., Winblad, B. G., Selstam, G., & Andersson, A. (1986) · Acta Physiologica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/j.1748-1716.1986.tb07972.x · Cited by 72 · cited 1×
“In fact, animal studies and post-mortem studies in reproductive and postmenopausal women indicate that estradiol and progesterone are accumulated in the brain (Bixo et al., 1986, 1995, 1997), with the highest concentration of progesterone found in the amygdala (Bixo et al., 1997).”
BackgroundSex and menstrual cycle phase at encoding influence emotional memory for gist and detail
Nielsen, S. E., Ahmed, I., & Cahill, L. F. (2013) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2013.07.015 · Cited by 70 · cited 3×
“Authors and design Subjects Cycle phases Design Task Result EMOTION RECOGNITION Derntl et al., 2013 37 NC 2–5/18–25 c.s Facial emotion recognition ↓ Accuracy mid-luteal phase Affective responsiveness ↓ reaction times mid-luteal phase Conway et al., 2007 52 NC Low P/high P Long Facial emotion recognition (averted gaze)…”
BackgroundBannbers, E., Gingnell, M., Engman, J., Morell, A., Comasco, E., Kask, K., Garavan, H., Wikström, J., & Sundström Poromaa, I. (2012) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2012.04.006 · Cited by 70
Self-citationRupp, H. A., James, T. W., Ketterson, E. D., Sengelaub, D. R., Janssen, E., & Heiman, J. R. (2009) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2009.03.005 · Cited by 70
Premenstrual dysphoric disorder and prefrontal reactivity during anticipation of emotional stimuli
Gingnell, M., Bannbers, E., Wikström, J., Fredrikson, M., & Poromaa, I. S. (2013) · European Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2013.08.002 · Cited by 69
Self-citationComasco, E., Hahn, A., Ganger, S., Gingnell, M., Bannbers, E., Oreland, L., Wikström, J., Epperson, C. N., Lanzenberger, R. R., & Poromaa, I. S. (2014) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.22486 · Cited by 67
Self-citationKonrad, C., Engelien, A., Schöning, S., Zwitserlood, P., Jansen, A., Pletziger, E., Beizai, P., Kersting, A., Ohrmann, P., Luders, E., et al. (2008) · Journal of neural transmission · doi:10.1007/s00702-008-0073-0 · Cited by 67 · cited 5×
“Again, a number of methodological concerns have been identified in the studies; several studies suffer from low power (Hausmann et al., 2000; Solis-Ortiz and Corsi-Cabrera, 2008), two studies report on a visuospatial composite score (Hampson, 1990; Gordon and Lee, 1993), and one study involved…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialAllopregnanolone and pregnanolone are produced by the human corpus luteum
Ottander, U., Poromaa, I. S., Bjurulf, E., Skytt, Å., Bäckström, T. C., & Olofsson, J. I. (2005) · Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.mce.2005.04.007 · Cited by 66
Kask, K., Gulinello, M. E., Bäckström, T. C., Geyer, M. A., & Poromaa, I. S. (2007) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1301599 · Cited by 61
Estradiol and mental rotation: relation to dimensionality, difficulty, or angular disparity?
Hampson, E., Levy-Cooperman, N., & Korman, J. M. (2014) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2013.12.016 · Cited by 58 · cited 11×
“…concerns are disregarded, four out of the six remaining studies were unable to detect any menstrual cycle differences in mental rotation performance (Maki et al., 2002; Schoning et al., 2007; Mordecai et al., 2008; Kozaki and Yasukouchi, 2009; Griksiene and Ruksenas, 2011; Hampson et al., 2014).”
BackgroundInfluentialRubinow, D. R., SMITH, M. J., Schenkel, L. A., Schmidt, P. J., & Dancer, K. (2007) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2007.01.031 · Cited by 57
Craig, M., Fletcher, P. C., Daly, E., RYMER, J. M., Cutter, W. J., Brammer, M. J., Giampietro, V., Wickham, H., Maki, P. M., & Murphy, D. (2007) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2007.09.009 · Cited by 56 · cited 2×
“Following eight weeks of treatment, the estradiol suppression obtained was associated with impaired verbal memory performance (Craig et al., 2007).”
BackgroundSchuster, J., Karlsson, T., Karlström, P., Poromaa, I. S., & Dahl, N. (2010) · Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology · doi:10.1186/1477-7827-8-58 · Cited by 55 · cited 2×
“With the rise of a dominant follicle, estradiol levels rapidly increase during the second week of the menstrual cycle (late follicular phase), and during the preovulatory estradiol surge levels between 600 and 2500 pmol/l, or even higher, may be encountered (Schuster et al., 2010).”
BackgroundInfluentialSigmon, S. T., Dorhofer, D. M., Rohan, K. J., Hotovy, L. A., Boulard, N. E., & Fink, C. M. (2000) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.68.3.425 · Cited by 51
Visual-spatial cognition in women with polycystic ovarian syndrome: the role of androgens
Barry, J. A., Parekh, H., & Hardiman, P. J. (2013) · Human Reproduction · doi:10.1093/humrep/det335 · Cited by 49 · cited 1×
“Finally, another interesting aspect is that women with polycystic ovary syndrome, which is characterized by hyperandrogenism (i.e., elevated androgen levels) display superior mental rotation performance in comparison with healthy, naturally cycling women (Barry et al., 2013).”
BackgroundLittle, A. (2013) · Frontiers in neuroendocrinology (Print) · doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2013.07.009 · Cited by 46 · cited 1×
“Overall, besides the mate preference studies (which is beyond the scope of this review, see instead Gangestad and Thornhill, 2008; Jones et al., 2008; Little, 2013), the emotional processing aspects of the menstrual cycle are far less researched than the cognitive aspects, Table 4.”
BackgroundSelective serotonin reuptake inhibitors for premenstrual syndrome
Brown, J., O’Brien, P. M. S., Marjoribanks, J., & Wyatt, K. M. (2002) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd001396 · Cited by 46
Nepomnaschy, P. A., Altman, R. M., Watterson, R., Co, C. A., McConnell, D. S., & England, B. G. (2011) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0018242 · Cited by 46
Premenstrual enhancement of snake detection in visual search in healthy women
Masataka, N., & Shibasaki, M. (2012) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep00307 · Cited by 44
Immune Aspects and Myometrial Actions of Progesterone and CRH in Labor
Vrachnis, N., Malamas, F. M., Sifakis, S., Tsikouras, P., & Iliodromiti, Z. (2012) · Clinical and Developmental Immunology · doi:10.1155/2012/937618 · Cited by 44
Gingnell, M., Ahlstedt, V., Bannbers, E., Wikström, J., Poromaa, I. S., & Fredrikson, M. (2014) · Biology of Mood & Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1186/2045-5380-4-3 · Cited by 43 · cited 1×
“Besides this finding, there is plenty of evidence to suggest that PMDD is associated with altered emotional processing across the menstrual cycle (Epperson et al., 2007; Kask et al., 2008b; Bannbers et al., 2011; Gingnell et al., 2012, 2013a, 2014; Hoyer et al., 2013; Comasco et al., 2014).”
BackgroundSelf-citationRumberg, B., Baars, A., Fiebach, J. B., Ladd, M. E., Forsting, M., Senf, W., & Gizewski, E. R. (2009) · Neuroscience Research · doi:10.1016/j.neures.2009.12.011 · Cited by 42 · cited 2×
“In line with the behavioral results, Rumberg and colleagues found no difference in brain activation during verb generation between women examined in the early follicular and late follicular/early luteal phase (Rumberg et al., 2010).”
BackgroundResultNillni, Y. I., Rohan, K. J., & Zvolensky, M. J. (2012) · Archives of Women s Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s00737-012-0302-2 · Cited by 38
Estrogen modulates inhibition of return in healthy human females
Colzato, L. S., Pratt, J., & Hommel, B. (2011) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.11.003 · Cited by 33
Sex Differences on Components of Mental Rotation at Different Menstrual Phases
Kozaki, T., & Yasukouchi, A. (2009) · International Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/00207450802480101 · Cited by 32 · cited 4×
“…at times of low estradiol levels (Gordon and Lee, 1993; Epting and Overman, 1998; Halari et al., 2005; Schoning et al., 2007; Mordecai et al., 2008; Kozaki and Yasukouchi, 2009; Griksiene and Ruksenas, 2011, however see Hausmann et al., 2000; Maki et al., 2002; Courvoisier et al., 2013; Hampson et…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialPletzer, B. A., Kronbichler, M., Ladurner, G., Nuerk, H., & Kerschbaum, H. (2011) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2011.08.058 · Cited by 29
Bannbers, E., Kask, K., Wikström, J., Risbrough, V. B., & Poromaa, I. S. (2011) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2011.02.011 · Cited by 23 · cited 1×
“Besides this finding, there is plenty of evidence to suggest that PMDD is associated with altered emotional processing across the menstrual cycle (Epperson et al., 2007; Kask et al., 2008b; Bannbers et al., 2011; Gingnell et al., 2012, 2013a, 2014; Hoyer et al., 2013; Comasco et al., 2014).”
BackgroundUpdates on Reproductive Physiology, Genital Diseases and Artificial Insemination in the Domestic Cat
Axnér, E. (2008) · Reproduction in Domestic Animals · doi:10.1111/j.1439-0531.2008.01154.x · Cited by 22 · cited 1×
“…phase has attracted most attention, presumably as progesterone in other species is considered a stress hormone (Fajer et al., 1971; Frye, 2007; Axner, 2008), and because of the close relationship between progesterone and the HPA axis, notably most commonly studied in relation to onset of…”
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Estrogen, Stress, and Depression: Cognitive and Biological Interactions
Albert, K. M., & NEWHOUSE, P. A. (2019) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050718-095557 · Cited by 373
Kundaković, M., & Rocks, D. (2022) · Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2022.101010 · Cited by 356
“…dynamically impact female brain morphology (Dubol et al., 2021; Woolley et al., 1990), function (Albert et al., 2015; Marrocco and McEwen, 2016; Sundstrom Poromaa and Gingnell, 2014), and neurochemistry (Barth et al., 2015), and are likely contributors to female-specific risks for…”
Toffoletto, S., Lanzenberger, R. R., Gingnell, M., Poromaa, I. S., & Comasco, E. (2014) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.07.025 · Cited by 331
“…emotional and cognitive processes. owever, there seems to be a scarcity of evidences from ehavioral studies toward hypothesized menstrual cycle nd oral contraceptives influences on emotion recognition, onsolidation of emotional memories, and fear extinction Sundström-Poromaa and Gingnell, 2014).”
InfluentialSelf-citationSex differences in the circadian regulation of sleep and waking cognition in humans
Santhi, N., Lázár, A. S., McCabe, P. J., Lo, J. C.-Y., Groeger, J. A., & Dijk, D. (2016) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1521637113 · Cited by 290
“Attentional processing, integration of emotion, response to reward, and performance in spatial tasks are all affected by the menstrual phase (57).”
Lonsdorf, T. B., & Merz, C. J. (2017) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.07.007 · Cited by 253
“In addition to the biological sex, different levels of sex (or gonadal) hormones occur over the course of the menstrual cycle in females, which has been shown to exert a pronounced impact on cognitive and affective processing (Sundström Poromaa and Gingnell, 2014; Toffoletto et al., 2014).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Sundström Poromaa, I., & Gingnell, M.
- Affiliations
- Uppsala University (SE)
- ORCID
- Gingnell, Malin
- Venue
- Frontiers in Neuroscience
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2014-11-24
- Volume
- 8
- Pages
- 380-380
- ISSN
- 1662-453X (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4241821
- OpenAlex
- W2019634736
- Cited by
- 291
- References
- 132
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 25 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 30 · 2020: 34 · 2019: 32 · 2018: 30 · 2017: 28 · 2016: 17 · 2015: 19 · 2014: 1
- FWCI
- 3.38
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Frontiers in Neuroscience (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Menstrual Health and Disorders
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Endocrinology › Estrogen and related hormone effects
- Keywords
- menstrual cycle, cognitive function, emotional processing, ovarian steroids, estradiol, progesterone, sexual dimorphism, mental rotation, working memory, prefrontal cortex, luteal phase, premenstrual disorders, amygdala reactivity, emotional memory, fear extinction, emotion recognition
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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