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Cognitive Control and Flexibility in the Context of Stress and Depressive Symptoms: The Cognitive Control and Flexibility Questionnaire
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Cognitive control and (cognitive) flexibility play an important role in the ability to adapt to continuously changing environments. In addition to facilitating goal-directed behaviors, cognitive control and flexibility have been implicated in emotion regulation, and disturbances of these abilities were observed in mood and anxiety disorders. The reported studies examined the processes related to cognitive control and flexibility, emotional regulation and depressive symptoms, within the context of stressful experiences. To this end, a brief (18-item) self-report measure - the Cognitive Control and Flexibility Questionnaire (CCFQ) - was developed. This questionnaire measures the extent to which an individual is capable of exerting control over intrusive, unwanted (negative) thoughts and emotions in order to flexibly adapt and cope with a stressful situation. In Study 1, the CCFQ was assessed among both university students (N = 300) and a community sample (N = 302). Preliminary analyses suggested a stable and reliable two-factor structure, that of cognitive control over emotion, and appraisal and coping flexibility. Scores on the CCFQ were strongly associated with greater depressive symptoms, even after controlling for other measures that had been taken to reflect cognitive control and (in)flexibility (e.g., the Ruminative Response Scale; Perseverative Thinking Questionnaire). In Study 2 (N = 368), lower scores on the CCFQ were related to more negative stressor appraisals (i.e., greater perceived threat and uncontrollability) of a personally meaningful stressful event. Perceptions of threat and uncontrollability, in turn, partially accounted for the association between CCFQ subscale scores and depressive symptoms. The relation between lower CCFQ scores and heightened depressive symptoms was also partially accounted for by less frequent engagement in problem-focused coping and more use of emotion-focused methods. In Study 3 (N = 47 females), lower scores on the cognitive control over emotion component of the CCFQ predicted elevated negative affect and an exacerbated cortisol response following an acute psychosocial stressor (Trier Social Stress Test). The present research points to the CCFQ as a useful self-report tool to identify ways through which cognitive control and flexibility might be manifested in stressful situations, and how reductions in flexibility might be accompanied by elevated symptoms of depression.
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“as several studies have found CI to be associated with self and parent-reported depression in autistic individuals (Gabrys et al., 2018; Hollocks et al., 2014, 2022a, 2022b; Lawson et al., 2015).”
From Investigating the Effects of Transdiagnostic Processes on Anxiety and Depression Symptoms in Autistic Young People: the Mediating Role of Emotion Dysregulation. (2025) · cites this paper as Gabrys et al., 2018
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“CI has been linked to flexible problem solving and transition between activities in autistic individuals (Uddin, 2021) and associated with anxiety and depression in autistic youth (Hollocks et al., 2019) and adult general population samples (Gabrys et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2019).”
From Investigating the Effects of Transdiagnostic Processes on Anxiety and Depression Symptoms in Autistic Young People: the Mediating Role of Emotion Dysregulation. (2025) · cites this paper as Gabrys et al., 2018
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Coping Styles Mediate Perfectionism Associations with Depression among Undergraduate Students
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“However, when negative appraisals are applied across situations without considering different characteristics of the various contexts, sustained negative mood is apt to occur (Lackner et al., 2015).”
BackgroundBlancat, G. D., García-Prieto, J., Maestú, F., & Barceló, F. (2017) · Brain Topography · doi:10.1007/s10548-017-0607-6 · Cited by 12 · cited 1×
“, 2011; Ionescu, 2012; Dajani and Uddin, 2015; Hutchison and Morton, 2016), particularly as their definitions overlap and the same behavioral tasks have been used to assess both abilities (Gläscher et al., 2012; Díaz-Blancat et al., 2018).”
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“Evidence indicates that stress and burnout can have a negative influence on cognitive performance across various domains including cognitive flexibility and cognitive control (Averill, 1973; Steinhauser et al., 2007; Gabrys et al., 2018).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Gabrys, R. L., Tabri, N., Anisman, H., & Matheson, K.
- Affiliations
- Carleton University (CA)
- Royal Ottawa Mental Health Centre (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Gabrys, Robert L.
- Venue
- Frontiers in Psychology
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2018-11-19
- Volume
- 9
- Pages
- 2219-2219
- ISSN
- 1664-1078 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6252356
- OpenAlex
- W2901368915
- Cited by
- 281
- References
- 97
- Citations by year
- 2026: 43 · 2025: 52 · 2024: 49 · 2023: 30 · 2022: 43 · 2021: 38 · 2020: 19 · 2019: 7
- FWCI
- 20.96
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- Frontiers in Psychology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Carleton University's Institutional Repository (MacOdrum Library, Carleton University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (9180)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
- Keywords
- cognitive control, cognitive flexibility, depressive symptoms, stress, emotion regulation, coping flexibility, stress appraisal, threat perception, problem-focused coping, emotion-focused coping, rumination, perseverative thinking, cortisol response, negative affect, Trier Social Stress Test, self-report measure development
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