Functional imaging studies of emotion regulation: a synthetic review and evolving model of the cognitive control of emotion
Open accessAbstract
This paper reviews and synthesizes functional imaging research that over the past decade has begun to offer new insights into the brain mechanisms underlying emotion regulation. Toward that end, the first section of the paper outlines a model of the processes and neural systems involved in emotion generation and regulation. The second section surveys recent research supporting and elaborating the model, focusing primarily on studies of the most commonly investigated strategy, which is known as reappraisal. At its core, the model specifies how prefrontal and cingulate control systems modulate activity in perceptual, semantic, and affect systems as a function of one's regulatory goals, tactics, and the nature of the stimuli and emotions being regulated. This section also shows how the model can be generalized to understand the brain mechanisms underlying other emotion regulation strategies as well as a range of other allied phenomena. The third and last section considers directions for future research, including how basic models of emotion regulation can be translated to understand changes in emotion across the life span and in clinical disorders.
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Successful cognitive reappraisal in healthy individuals is accompanied by increased activation in prefrontal areas, which exert an inhibitory influence on limbic structures such as the bilateral amygdala and thus modulate excessive bottom-up emotional responses.
“Neuroimaging studies in healthy individuals investigating neural activation patterns during emotion regulation have demonstrated that successful cognitive reappraisal is accompanied by increased activation in prefrontal areas, which exert an inhibitory influence on limbic structures such as the bilateral amygdala and thus modulate excessive bottom-up emotional responses (Kohn et al., 2014, Ochsner”
From Rt-fMRI neurofeedback-guided cognitive reappraisal training modulates amygdala responsivity in posttraumatic stress disorder (2020) · cites this paper as Ochsner et al., 2012
Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measureddlPFC is involved in general selective attention and working memory, while lOFC/vlPFC is important for selecting a goal-appropriate reappraisal.
“It has been suggested that dlPFC is involved in general selective attention and working memory, while the lOFC/vlPFC seems to be important for selecting a goal-appropriate reappraisal (Ochsner et al., 2012).”
From Top-Down Dysregulation—From ADHD to Emotional Instability (2016) · cites this paper as Ochsner et al., 2012
In “Integrating new research on reappraisal” (page unavailable), the review links ventrolateral PFC to selecting alternative meanings during reinterpretation, supporting the reappraisal-selection part. In “Generalizability to other related phenomena” (page unavailable), it describes dlPFC as maintaining choice goals, but the passages found do not establish the claimed role in both general selective attention and working memory or specifically identify lOFC in selecting a goal-appropriate reappraisal. (LLM, conf=0.79)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe dmPFC is implicated in social cognition, mentalizing, monitoring emotional states, and emotion regulation.
“The dmPFC, implicated in social cognition (Bzdok et al., 2013; Lieberman, Straccia, Meyer, Du, & Tan, 2019), mentalizing (Zaki & Ochsner, 2012), and monitoring one’s own and others’ emotional states (Ochsner et al., 2012), is thought to play a role in emotion regulation (Buhle et al., 2014; Ochsner & Gross, 2005).”
From Changes in functional connectivity with cognitive behavioral therapy for social anxiety disorder predict outcomes at follow-up (2020) · cites this paper as Ochsner et al., 2012
The present results align with neurobiological models in which prefrontal cortex down-regulates affective regions such as the amygdala.
“The results are consistent with neurobiological models of prefrontal cortical down-regulation of affective regions such as the amygdala (Ochsner, Silvers, & Buhle, 2012).”
From Changes in functional connectivity with cognitive behavioral therapy for social anxiety disorder predict outcomes at follow-up (2020) · cites this paper as Ochsner, Silvers, & Buhle, 2012
Neuroimaging studies of emotional reappraisal have shown that emotion regulation strategies can alter emotion-related neural activity.
“Neuroimaging studies of emotional reappraisal have shown that emotion regulation strategies can alter emotion-related neural activity (Ochsner et al. 2012).”
From Chronic Childhood Peer Rejection is Associated with Heightened Neural Responses to Social Exclusion During Adolescence (2016) · cites this paper as Ochsner et al. 2012
Reappraisal can be used to change the intensity, quality or duration of various kinds of emotional responses in accordance with regulation goals.
“Reappraisal can be used to change the intensity, quality or duration of various kinds of emotional responses in accordance with regulation goals”
From Explicit and implicit emotion regulation: a multi-level framework (2017) · cites this paper as Ochsner et al., 2012
Four control systems have been most strongly implicated in explicit-controlled emotion regulation: dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC), ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (vlPFC), dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) and dorsal medial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC).
“Four such control systems (Figures 3 and 4) have been most strongly implicated in explicit-controlled emotion regulation: dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC), ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (vlPFC), dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) and dorsal medial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC)”
From Explicit and implicit emotion regulation: a multi-level framework (2017) · cites this paper as Ochsner et al., 2012
Rostral portions of dmPFC, thought to play a key role in mentalizing, have been implicated in some studies of reappraisal, likely to support monitoring and reflection on one's own emotional states and reflection on and reinterpretation of the mental states of stimulus persons.
“Rostral portions of dmPFC, thought to play a key role in mentalizing (Zaki and Ochsner, 2012), have been implicated in some studies of reappraisal, likely to support monitoring and reflection on one’s own emotional states and reflection on and reinterpretation of the mental states of stimulus persons”
From Explicit and implicit emotion regulation: a multi-level framework (2017) · cites this paper as Ochsner et al., 2012
Successful reappraisal in typical adults relies on the ability of regions including dlPFC, dACC and vlPFC to downregulate emotional responses in amygdala, VS and insula.
“successful reappraisal relies on the ability of regions including dlPFC, dACC and vlPFC to downregulate emotional responses in amygdala, VS and insula (Ochsner et al., 2012).”
From Neurocognitive bases of emotion regulation development in adolescence (2015) · cites this paper as Ochsner et al., 2012
The medial and lateral PFC and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) are involved in emotion regulation including suppression of the amygdalar responses to negative emotional information.
“The medial and lateral PFC and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) are involved in emotion regulation including suppression of the amygdalar responses to negative emotional information (Ochsner et al., 2012).”
From The maternal brain and its plasticity in humans (2016) · cites this paper as Ochsner et al., 2012
Reappraisal yielded activity in a fronto-parietal network associated with cognitive control and attention regulation.
“Reappraisal on the other hand yielded activity in a fronto-parietal network associated with cognitive control and attention regulation [54].”
From On the interaction of social affect and cognition: empathy, compassion and theory of mind (2018) · cites this paper as [54]
Reappraisal modulates affective regions via recruitment of a network including dlPFC, PPC, vlPFC, mPFC, and ACC.
“Reappraisal is believed to modulate these regions via recruitment of a network of regions including the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC), posterior parietal cortex (PPC), ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (vlPFC), posterior medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) [8,14].”
From The neuroscience of emotion regulation development: Implications for education (2016) · cites this paper as [8]
Reappraisal is effective at dampening or enhancing responses in systems associated with affective responding.
“Reappraisal has been shown to be effective at dampening or enhancing responses in systems associated with affective responding.”
From The neuroscience of emotion regulation development: Implications for education (2016) · cites this paper as [8]
Emotion regulation abilities are associated with recruitment of prefrontal brain regions involved in cognitive control and executive functioning that mature late in development.
“In neuroimaging studies, emotion regulation abilities are associated with recruitment of a set of prefrontal brain regions involved in cognitive control and executive functioning that mature late in development.”
From The neuroscience of emotion regulation development: Implications for education (2016) · cites this paper as [8]
Reappraisal is consistently associated with activation of regions involved in selective attention, conflict monitoring and cognitive control, including dorsal anterior cingulate, ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, dorsolateral PFC and supramarginal gyrus/temporoparietal junction.
“In contrast, Reappraisal has consistently been associated with activation of regions involved in selective attention, conflict monitoring and cognitive control, including dorsal anterior cingulate (dACC), ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (vlPFC), dorsolateral PFC (dlPFC) and supramarginal gyrus/temporoparietal junction (SMG/TPJ) (Ochsner et al., 2012;Buhle et al., 2014).”
From Compassion-based emotion regulation up-regulates experienced positive affect and associated neural networks (2015) · cites this paper as Ochsner et al., 2012
The fronto-parietal network regions (ventral/dorsal PFC, dACC, TPJ/SMG) are known to be associated with cognitive control, attention regulation, and working memory.
“regions known to be associated with cognitive control, attention regulation and working memory (Ochsner et al., 2012).”
From Compassion-based emotion regulation up-regulates experienced positive affect and associated neural networks (2015) · cites this paper as Ochsner et al., 2012
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Self Control in Society, Mind, and Brain
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How does facial feedback modulate emotional experience?
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Cognitive emotion regulation fails the stress test
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Toward a personalized science of emotion regulation
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“That said, the basic model that guides much contemporary emotion regulation research has now received strong support (Gross, 2015; Ochsner et al., 2012; Webb, Miles, & Sheeran, 2012), and researchers are beginning to move beyond it to formulate the next iteration of emotion regulation research.”
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Meta-Analysis of fMRI Studies of Disruptive Behavior Disorders
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The dark side of meaning-making: How social exclusion leads to superstitious thinking
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fMRI neurofeedback facilitates anxiety regulation in females with spider phobia
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Getting Over It: Long-Lasting Effects of Emotion Regulation on Amygdala Response
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Human Maternal Brain Plasticity: Adaptation to Parenting
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New Technologies for the Understanding, Assessment, and Intervention of Emotion Regulation
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- Authors
- Ochsner, K. N., Silvers, J. A., & Buhle, J. T.
- Affiliations
- Columbia University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Ochsner, Kevin N.
- Venue
- Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2012-03
- Volume
- 1251
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- E1-24
- ISSN
- 0077-8923 (ISSN-L)
- 1749-6632
- PMC
- PMC4133790
- OpenAlex
- W1921511099
- Cited by
- 1,879
- References
- 223
- Citations by year
- 2026: 114 · 2025: 145 · 2024: 113 · 2023: 155 · 2022: 149 · 2021: 164 · 2020: 150 · 2019: 176 · 2018: 157 · 2017: 123 · 2016: 147 · 2015: 120 · 2014: 99 · 2013: 58 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 7.13
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (5r01ag043463-05)
- National Institute on Aging (R01-AG043463, AG039279)
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH076137, F31MH094056, MH076137)
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (R01DA022541, DA-022541)
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01HD069178)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Keywords
- emotion regulation, cognitive emotion regulation, cognitive reappraisal, prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, emotion generation, emotion regulation strategies
- MeSH terms
- Brain, Cognition, Emotions, Humans, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Models, Neurological, Neural Pathways
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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