Exploring Students’ Use of a Mobile Application to Support Their Self-Regulated Learning Processes
Open accessAbstract
Being able to self-regulate one’s learning is essential for academic success but is also very difficult for students. Especially first year students can be overwhelmed with the high study load and autonomy in higher education. To face this challenge, students’ monitoring and self-regulated learning (SRL) processes are crucial. Yet, often students are not aware of effective SRL strategies or how to use them. In this study, the use of a mobile application with gamification elements (i.e., Ace Your Self-Study App) to support first-year university students’ SRL processes was investigated. In Study 1a, the Ace your self-study app was implemented in a first-year psychology course, and students’ SRL skills, motivation, self-efficacy, app use and satisfaction, and performance were measured. The results showed a significant increase in autonomous motivation, controlled motivation, and metacognitive self-regulation skills (MSR-R) across the 5-week course. Moreover, students who used the mobile application with gamified elements showed higher autonomous motivation. Nevertheless, most students used the app only for a limited number of self-study sessions. In Study 1b, students’ self-study experiences were captured using focus group interviews to shed some more light on why students did or did not use the app. The results show that if students feel they do not need support for their SRL processes during self-study, they are less inclined to use the app. Specifically, regarding using study strategies, it was found that only if students’ strategies do not work well in their perception, they feel the need to change their way of studying and choose another strategy. These results are discussed in the context of theory on SRL and how to support it.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Adaptive learning systems ensure that students are appropriately challenged without being overwhelmed, which has been demonstrated to enhance both motivation and engagement.
“This approach ensures that students are appropriately challenged without being overwhelmed, which has been demonstrated to enhance both motivation and engagement (Baars et al. 2022).”
From Large language models (LLMs): survey, technical frameworks, and future challenges (2024) · cites this paper as Baars et al. 2022
The Results report higher autonomous motivation in the gamified-app group than in the standard-app group. The General Discussion says the authors expected gamification to improve engagement and motivation, but that hypothesis was not confirmed. Neither passage shows that an adaptive system kept students appropriately challenged without overwhelming them or demonstrated improved engagement; page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
The "what" and "why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1207/s15327965pli1104_01 · Cited by 34,210 · see citing works
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037//0003-066x.55.1.68 · Cited by 27,815 · see citing works
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions and New Directions
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 · Cited by 18,666 · cited 3× · see citing works
“Hence in line with the SDT (Deci and Ryan, 2000; Ryan and Deci, 2000a,b, 2020; Pelletier et al., 2001), it seems promising to explain to students more about the relevance of SRL activities and using effective study strategies to support their motivation for engaging with them.”
Background(2017) · Cited by 16,319 · see citing works
(1998) · Cited by 13,501 · see citing works
Becoming a Self-Regulated Learner: An Overview
Zimmerman, B. J. (2002) · Theory Into Practice · doi:10.1207/s15430421tip4102_2 · Cited by 7,305 · cited 3× · see citing works
“These findings align with the model of SRL by Zimmerman (2002, 2008) as both cognitive and metacognitive processes are crucial in going through the three phases of SRL. Metacognitive processes for example are, students setting learning goals, self-monitoring learning processes, and regulating or…”
BackgroundResultSelf-determination theory: A macrotheory of human motivation, development, and health
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008) · Canadian Psychology / Psychologie canadienne · doi:10.1037/a0012801 · Cited by 6,664 · see citing works
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860 · Cited by 6,037 · see citing works
Self-Efficacy Beliefs in Academic Settings
Pajares, F. (1996) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.2307/1170653 · Cited by 4,688 · see citing works
Moral Identity and Developmental Theory
Lapsley, D. K. (2015) · Human Development · doi:10.1159/000435926 · Cited by 3,836 · see citing works
Zimmerman, B. J. (2008) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/0002831207312909 · Cited by 3,735 · see citing works
Self-Efficacy Beliefs of Adolescents
Pajares, F., & Urdan, T. (2006) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-60752-750-3 · Cited by 3,544 · see citing works
A Conceptual Framework for Assessing Motivation and Self-Regulated Learning in College Students
Pintrich, P. R. (2004) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-004-0006-x · Cited by 3,269 · see citing works
(1991) · Cited by 3,259 · see citing works
Toward a hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
Vallerand, R. J. (1997) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60019-2 · Cited by 3,198 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Moreover, these different types of motivation can operate at different levels (Vallerand, 1997), such as trait, contextual (e.g., school level), and the situational level (e.g., for a specific subject or moment).”
BackgroundThe role of motivation in promoting and sustaining self-regulated learning
Pintrich, P. R. (1999) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/s0883-0355(99)00015-4 · Cited by 1,987 · see citing works
Vansteenkiste, M., Lens, W., & Deci, E. L. (2006) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep4101_4 · Cited by 1,794 · see citing works
Vansteenkiste, M., Simons, J., Lens, W., Sheldon, K. M., & Deci, E. L. (2004) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.87.2.246 · Cited by 1,762 · see citing works
Broadbent, J., & Poon, W. L. (2015) · The Internet and Higher Education · doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2015.04.007 · Cited by 1,692 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…that metacognitive processes, such as monitoring and control, which allow students to self-regulate or self-manage their learning processes and choose which cognitive strategies to use, are crucial for academic success (e.g., Thiede et al., 2003; Broadbent and Poon, 2015; Dent and Koenka, 2015).”
BackgroundMethodSelf-Regulated Learning: Beliefs, Techniques, and Illusions
Bjork, R. A., Dunlosky, J., & Kornell, N. (2013) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143823 · Cited by 1,468 · see citing works
Classroom Applications of Research on Self-Regulated Learning
Paris, S. G., & Paris, A. H. (2001) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3602_4 · Cited by 1,343 · see citing works
Why People Fail to Recognize Their Own Incompetence
Dunning, D., Johnson, K., Ehrlinger, J., & Kruger, J. (2003) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-8721.01235 · Cited by 1,224 · see citing works
Dignath, C., & Büttner, G. (2008) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-008-9029-x · Cited by 1,085 · cited 4× · see citing works
“Based on findings from earlier studies, supporting all three phases of SRL (e.g., Dignath and Büttner, 2008; Wong et al., 2019) and offering guidance on how to use study strategies (e.g., McCabe, 2011; Bjork et al., 2013) was hypothesized to help students employ SRL strategies and thereby improve…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialMotivational profiles from a self-determination perspective: The quality of motivation matters.
Vansteenkiste, M., Sierens, E., Soenens, B., Luyckx, K., & Lens, W. (2009) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0015083 · Cited by 1,074 · cited 5× · see citing works
“This order of entering the variables was based on existing theory supporting motivation (e.g., Vansteenkiste et al., 2009), self-efficacy (e.g., Pajares, 1996), and SRL skills (e.g., Broadbent and Poon, 2015; Dent and Koenka, 2015) as predictors of performance.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialGoal Setting and Self-Efficacy During Self-Regulated Learning
Schunk, D. H. (1990) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2501_6 · Cited by 1,011 · see citing works
Mekler, E. D., Brühlmann, F., Tuch, A. N., & Opwis, K. (2017) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.08.048 · Cited by 990 · see citing works
Pelletier, L. G., Fortier, M. S., Vallerand, R. J., & Brière, N. M. (2001) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1023/a:1014805132406 · Cited by 958 · see citing works
Motivation and Education: The Self-Determination Perspective
Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., et al. (1991) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2603&4_6 · Cited by 952 · see citing works
How can primary school students learn self-regulated learning strategies most effectively?
Dignath, C., Buettner, G., & Langfeldt, H.-P. (2008) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2008.02.003 · Cited by 903 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Interventions to support SRL processes based on metacognitive theories, like metacognitive reflection (Dignath and Büttner, 2008) and planning strategies (Dignath et al., 2008), were found to improve strategy use and learning outcomes.”
BackgroundDent, A. L., & Koenka, A. C. (2015) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-015-9320-8 · Cited by 887 · see citing works
Taylor, G., Jungert, T., Mageau, G. A., Schattke, K., Dedic, H., Rosenfield, S., & Koestner, R. (2014) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2014.08.002 · Cited by 816 · see citing works
Accuracy of metacognitive monitoring affects learning of texts.
Thiede, K. W., Anderson, M. C. M., & Therriault, D. J. (2003) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.95.1.66 · Cited by 780 · see citing works
Effects of self-assessment on self-regulated learning and self-efficacy: Four meta-analyses
Panadero, E., Jonsson, A., & Botella, J. (2017) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2017.08.004 · Cited by 712 · see citing works
Blueprints for complex learning: The 4C/ID-model
van Merriënboer, J. J. G., Clark, R. E., & de Croock, M. B. M. (2002) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02504993 · Cited by 708 · see citing works
Dunlosky, J. T., & Rawson, K. A. (2011) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2011.08.003 · Cited by 655 · see citing works
A mobile gamification learning system for improving the learning motivation and achievements
Su, C., & Cheng, C. (2015) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12088 · Cited by 648 · see citing works
Goal and Self-Evaluative Influences During Children’s Cognitive Skill Learning
Schunk, D. H. (1996) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/00028312033002359 · Cited by 637 · see citing works
Supporting Self-Regulated Learning in Online Learning Environments and MOOCs: A Systematic Review
Wong, J., Baars, M., Davis, D., Van Der Zee, T., Houben, G.-J., & Paas, F. (2019) · International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2018.1543084 · Cited by 631 · see citing works
Self-citationModels of Self-Regulated Learning and Academic Achievement
Zimmerman, B. J. (1989) · Springer series in cognitive development · doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-3618-4_1 · Cited by 610 · see citing works
Seeking help in large college classes: A person-centered approach
Karabenick, S. A. (2003) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0361-476x(02)00012-7 · Cited by 396 · see citing works
Avoiding Seeking Help in the Classroom: Who and Why?
Ryan, A. M., Pintrich, P. R., & Midgley, C. (2001) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1023/a:1009013420053 · Cited by 390 · see citing works
Dunlosky, J. T., & Lipko, A. R. (2007) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00509.x · Cited by 359 · see citing works
Cognitive, metacognitive, and motivational aspects of problem solving
Mayer, R. E. (1998) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1023/a:1003088013286 · Cited by 354 · see citing works
Peng, H., Ma, S., & Spector, J. M. (2019) · Smart Learning Environments · doi:10.1186/s40561-019-0089-y · Cited by 346 · see citing works
Metacognitive awareness of learning strategies in undergraduates
McCabe, J. (2011) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-010-0035-2 · Cited by 308 · see citing works
León, J., Alonso, J. L. N., & Liew, J. (2015) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2015.08.017 · Cited by 297 · see citing works
Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Motivation: An Approach/Avoidance Reformulation
Covington, M. V., & Müeller, K. J. (2001) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1023/a:1009009219144 · Cited by 279 · see citing works
Devolder, A., van Braak, J., & Tondeur, J. (2012) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2729.2011.00476.x · Cited by 258 · see citing works
Time will tell: The role of mobile learning analytics in self-regulated learning
Tabuenca, B., Kalz, M., Drachsler, H., & Specht, M. (2015) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2015.08.004 · Cited by 242 · see citing works
Fostering effective learning strategies in higher education—A mixed-methods study.
Biwer, F., Egbrink, M. G. A. O., Aalten, P., & de Bruin, A. B. H. (2020) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2020.03.004 · Cited by 238 · see citing works
Nückles, M., Roelle, J., Glogger-Frey, I., Waldeyer, J., & Renkl, A. (2020) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-020-09541-1 · Cited by 213 · see citing works
More about the development of self-regulation: Complex, long-term, and thoroughly social
Pressley, M. G. (1995) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3004_6 · Cited by 188 · see citing works
Brief Research Report: Sense of Belonging and Academic Help-Seeking as Self-Regulated Learning
Won, S., Hensley, L. C., & Wolters, C. A. (2019) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2019.1703095 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Wilson, K. S., & Narayan, A. (2014) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2014.926312 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Girelli, L., Alivernini, F., Lucidi, F., Cozzolino, M., Savarese, G., Sibilio, M., & Salvatore, S. (2018) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2018.00095 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
A comprehensive reanalysis of the metacognitive self-regulation scale from the MSLQ
Tock, J. L., & Moxley, J. H. (2016) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-016-9161-y · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Do secondary school students make use of effective study strategies when they study on their own?
Dirkx, K., Camp, G., Kester, L., & Kirschner, P. A. (2019) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3584 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Baars, M., & Wijnia, L. (2018) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2018.05.007 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Self-citationBroadbent, J., Panadero, E., & Fuller‐Tyszkiewicz, M. (2020) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-020-09781-6 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
A Gamification–Motivation Design Framework for Educational Software Developers
Buckley, J., Wille, T. D., Exton, C., Exton, G., & Murray, L. (2018) · Journal of Educational Technology Systems · doi:10.1177/0047239518783153 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Do cognitive and metacognitive processes set the stage for each other?
Roelle, J., Nowitzki, C., & Berthold, K. (2016) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.11.009 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Effects of informing learners about the dangers of making overconfident judgments of learning.
Roelle, J., Schmidt, E. M., Buchau, A., & Berthold, K. (2016) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000132 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Young Learners’ Regulation of Practice Behavior in Adaptive Learning Technologies
Molenaar, I., Horvers, A., & Dijkstra, R. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02792 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Wijnia, L., & Baars, M. (2021) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-020-09531-4 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- Crabtree B. Miller W. (1999). “ Using codes and code manuals: a template organizing style of interpretation,” in Doing Qualitative Research in Primary Care: Multiple Strategies. 2nd Edn. eds. Crabtree B. Miller W. (Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications), 163– 177.
- Thiede K. W. Griffin T. D. Wiley J. Redford J. S. (2009). “ Metacognitive monitoring during and after reading,” in Handbook of Metacognition and Self-Regulated Learning. eds. Hacker D. J. Dunlosky J. Graesser A. C. (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum).
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Alqahtani, T., Badreldin, H. A., Alrashed, M., Alshaya, A. I., Alghamdi, S. S., bin Saleh, K., Alowais, S. A., Alshaya, O. A., Rahman, I., Al Yami, M. S., et al. (2023) · Research in Social and Administrative Pharmacy · doi:10.1016/j.sapharm.2023.05.016 · Cited by 565 · see citing works
Large language models (LLMs): survey, technical frameworks, and future challenges
Kumar, P. (2024) · Artificial Intelligence Review · doi:10.1007/s10462-024-10888-y · Cited by 395 · see citing works
Chiu, T. K. F. (2024) · Educational technology research and development · doi:10.1007/s11423-024-10366-w · Cited by 235 · see citing works
Seban, P., Urban, K., & Sikl, R. (2025) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-024-09686-4 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
- Authors
- Baars, M., Khare, S., & Ridderstap, L.
- Affiliations
- Erasmus University Rotterdam (NL)
- Corresponding author
- Baars, Martine
- Venue
- Frontiers in Psychology
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2022-03-14
- Volume
- 13
- Pages
- 793002-793002
- ISSN
- 1664-1078 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC8964128
- OpenAlex
- W4220748613
- Cited by
- 36
- References
- 64
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 2
- FWCI
- 11.04
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Frontiers in Psychology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion)
- Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Erasmus University Rotterdam
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › Mobile Learning in Education
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Games and Gamification
- Keywords
- student self-regulation, mobile learning applications, gamification, first-year students, autonomous motivation, metacognitive self-regulation, self-directed learning, self-efficacy, student motivation, study habits
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
