The Role of Attention-Deficit/hyperactivity Disorder in the Association between Verbal Ability and Conduct Disorder
Open accessAbstract
Although there is clear evidence that low verbal ability is a risk factor for conduct disorder (CD), some researchers have questioned whether this association is due to the common comorbidity between attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and CD. The present study examined the association among verbal ability, ADHD, and CD in a genetically informative sample in order to examine the role of genes and/or environmental influences shared in common with ADHD on the covariation between verbal ability and CD. Participants were 2744 adolescents from the Center for Antisocial Drug Dependence (CADD), and included 360 monozygotic (MZ) female twin pairs, 221 dizygotic (DZ) female twin pairs, 297 MZ male twin pairs, 220 DZ male twin pairs, and 274 opposite-sex DZ twin pairs. The Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (DISC-IV) was used to assess lifetime symptoms of ADHD and CD. Verbal ability was assessed via the Vocabulary subtest of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale III (WAIS-III) for individuals over the age of 16 and the Vocabulary subtest of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children III (WISC-III) for individuals under the age of 16. There was a small but significant negative covariance between verbal ability and CD and between verbal ability and ADHD. Results also suggest that the covariation between verbal ability and CD is due to influences shared in common with ADHD.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
There is covariance between verbal ability and CD of approximately 16%, but it is associated with influences shared with ADHD.
“there is a covariance with CD (approximately 16%), but it is associated with in fl uences shared with ADHD”
From ADHD, CD, and ODD: Systematic review of genetic and environmental risk factors (2018) · cites this paper as Smith et al., 2011
The Discussion says that covariance between verbal ability and CD is significant and that most of it is associated with influences also shared with ADHD. But its approximately 16% figure refers to the variance of CD attributable to influences common to all three traits, not to the magnitude of the covariance between verbal ability and CD. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredPoor verbal ability is not a significant risk factor for CD after controlling for ADHD.
“poor verbal ability is not a signi fi cant risk factor for CD after controlling for ADHD”
From ADHD, CD, and ODD: Systematic review of genetic and environmental risk factors (2018) · cites this paper as Smith et al., 2011
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
Williams, J. B. W., & First, M. B. (2013) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199975839.013.104 · Cited by 109,841 · see citing works
Hu, L.-T., & Bentler, P. M. (1998) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.3.4.424 · Cited by 12,298 · see citing works
Adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent antisocial behavior: a developmental taxonomy
Moffitt, T. E. (1993) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.100.4.674 · Cited by 9,987 · see citing works
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-III
Ryan, J. J., & Lopez, S. J. (2001) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-1185-4_2 · Cited by 3,680 · see citing works
SHAFFER, D., FISHER, P., LUCAS, C. P., DULCAN, M. K., & SCHWAB-STONE, M. E. (2000) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/00004583-200001000-00014 · Cited by 3,505 · see citing works
Molecular genetics of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
Faraone, S. V., Perlis, R. H., Doyle, A. E., Smoller, J. W., Goralnick, J. J., Holmgren, M. A., & Sklar, P. (2005) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.11.024 · Cited by 2,357 · see citing works
SHAFFER, D., FISHER, P., DULCAN, M. K., DAVIES, M., PIACENTINI, J., SCHWAB-STONE, M. E., LAHEY, B. B., BOURDON, K., JENSEN, P. S., BIRD, H. R., et al. (1996) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/00004583-199607000-00012 · Cited by 1,587 · see citing works
Wilson, J. Q., & Herrnstein, R. J. (1985) · DigitalGeorgetown (Georgetown University Library) · Cited by 1,433 · see citing works
Rhee, S. H., & Waldman, I. D. (2002) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.128.3.490 · Cited by 1,266 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Measurement of Adult Intelligence.
Wechsler, D. (1940) · Archives of Neurology And Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archneurpsyc.1940.02280030188021 · Cited by 980 · see citing works
The measurement of adult intelligence (3rd ed.).
Wechsler, D. (1946) · Williams & Wilkins eBooks · doi:10.1037/11329-000 · Cited by 825 · see citing works
Angold, A. C., Costello, E. J., & Erkanli, A. (1999) · PubMed · Cited by 723 · see citing works
Willcutt, E. G., Pennington, B. F., Olson, R. K., Chhabildas, N., & Hulslander, J. (2005) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1207/s15326942dn2701_3 · Cited by 612 · see citing works
Oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder: a review of the past 10 years, part II.
Burke, J. D., Loeber, R., & Birmaher, B. (2002) · Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/00004583-200211000-00009 · Cited by 610 · see citing works
Intelligence and Delinquency: A Revisionist Review
Hirschi, T., & Hindelang, M. J. (1977) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2094556 · Cited by 589 · see citing works
Moffitt, T. E. (1990) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1130972 · Cited by 574 · see citing works
Evidence-Based Assessment of Anxiety and Its Disorders in Children and Adolescents
Silverman, W. K., & Ollendick, T. H. (2005) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3403_2 · Cited by 556 · see citing works
Eaves, L. J., Silberg, J. L., Meyer, J. M., Maes, H. H., Simonoff, E., Pickles, A., Rutter, M., Reynolds, C. A., Heath, A. C., Truett, K. R., et al. (1997) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1997.tb01614.x · Cited by 489 · see citing works
Self-citationWaschbusch, D. A. (2002) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.128.1.118 · Cited by 437 · see citing works
Lynam, D. R., Moffitt, T. E., & Stouthamer‐Loeber, M. (1993) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-843x.102.2.187 · Cited by 432 · see citing works
Molecular Genetics of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Faraone, S. V., & Mick, E. (2010) · Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.psc.2009.12.004 · Cited by 411 · cited 2× · see citing works
“A review of 20 twin studies of ADHD reported a mean heritability estimate of 76% and little evidence of shared environmental influences on ADHD (Faraone et al., 2005).”
BackgroundInfluentialWillcutt, E. G., Betjemann, R. S., McGrath, L. M., Chhabildas, N. A., Olson, R. K., DeFries, J. C., & Pennington, B. F. (2010) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2010.06.009 · Cited by 354 · see citing works
Predicting participation, early onset and later persistence in officially recorded offending
Farrington, D. P., & Hawkins, J. D. (1991) · Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health · doi:10.1002/cbm.1991.1.1.1 · Cited by 352 · see citing works
NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS PREDICTING PERSISTENT MALE DELINQUENCY*
Moffitt, T. E., Lynam, D. R., & Silva, P. A. (1994) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.1994.tb01155.x · Cited by 348 · see citing works
Examining the comorbidity of ADHD-related behaviours and conduct problems using a twin study design
Thapar, A., Harrington, R., & McGuffin, P. (2001) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.179.3.224 · Cited by 266 · see citing works
Self-Reported Delinquency, neuropsychological deficit, and history of attention deficit disorder
Moffitt, T. E., & Silva, P. A. (1988) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/bf00914266 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
IQ and delinquency: A direct test of the differential detection hypothesis.
Moffitt, T. E., & Silva, P. A. (1988) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-843x.97.3.330 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
NADDER, T. S., RUTTER, M., SILBERG, J. L., MAES, H. H., & EAVES, L. J. (2002) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291701004792 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Evidence-Based Assessment of Conduct Problems in Children and Adolescents
McMahon, R. J., & Frick, P. J. (2005) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3403_6 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
Intelligence, Callous-Unemotional Traits, and Antisocial Behavior
Loney, B. R., Frick, P. J., Ellis, M. L., & McCoy, M. G. (1998) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1023/a:1023015318156 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Ehringer, M. A., Rhee, S. H., Young, S. E., Corley, R. P., & Hewitt, J. K. (2006) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-005-9000-0 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Self-citationRhea, S. A., Gross, A. A., Haberstick, B. C., & Corley, R. P. (2006) · Twin Research and Human Genetics · doi:10.1375/183242706779462895 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Self-citationEffects of Censoring on Parameter Estimates and Power in Genetic Modeling
Derks, E. M., Dolan, C. V., & Boomsma, D. I. (2004) · Twin Research · doi:10.1375/1369052042663832 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Longitudinal genetic study of verbal and nonverbal IQ from early childhood to young adulthood
Hoekstra, R. A., Bartels, M., & Boomsma, D. I. (2007) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2007.05.005 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Nigg, J. T., & Huang‐Pollock, C. L. (2003) · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Plomin, R. J., Price, T. S., Eley, T. C., Dale, P. S., & Stevenson, J. (2002) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00051 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Genetic influences on the overlap between low IQ and antisocial behavior in young children.
Koenen, K., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T., Rijsdijk, F., & Taylor, A. H. (2006) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.115.4.787 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Elkins, I. J., Iacono, W. G., Doyle, A. E., & McGue, M. K. (1997) · Aggression and Violent Behavior · doi:10.1016/s1359-1789(96)00013-4 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Déry, M., Toupin, J., Pauzé, R., Mercier, H., & Fortin, L. (1999) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1023/a:1021904523912 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
The reaction of adolescent offenders and nonoffenders to nonverbal emotion displays
Savitsky, J. C., & Czyzewski, D. I. (1978) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/bf00915784 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Violent Delinquency, Race, and the Wechsler Performance-Verbal Discrepancy
Petee, T. A., & Walsh, A. (1987) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.1987.9713705 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 8
- Angold A. Costello E. J. Erkanli A. (1999). Comorbidity. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatr. 40, 57– 87 10102726
- Dick D. M. Viken R. J. Kaprio J. Pulkkinen L. Rose R. J. (2005). Understanding the covariation among childhood externalizing symptoms: genetic and environmental influences on conduct disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and oppositional defiant disorder symptoms. J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. 33, 219– 229 15839499
- Henry B. Moffitt T. (1997). “Neuropsychological and neuroimaging studies of juvenile delinquency and adult criminal behavior,” in Handbook of Antisocial Behavior, eds Stoff D. Breiling J. (New York, NY: Wiley), 280– 288
- Luria A. R. (1963). “The role of speech in the formation of temporary connections and the regulation of behaviour in the normal and oligophrenic child,” in Educational Psychology in the U.S.S.R, eds Simon B. Simon J. (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press), 83– 97
- Moffitt T. E. (1990b). The neuropsychology of juvenile delinquency: a critical review. Crime Justice 12, 99– 169 10.1086/449165 · DOI
- Plomin R. Craig I. (1997). Human behavioral genetics of cognitive abilities and disabilities. Bioessays 19, 1117– 1124 9423350
- Plomin R. Spinath F. M. (2004). Intelligence: genetics, genes, and genomics. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 86, 112– 129 14717631
- Quay H. (1987). “Intelligence,” in Handbook of Juvenile Delinquency, ed. Quay H. (New York, NY: Wiley), 106– 117
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Heritability of attention‐deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults
Brikell, I., Kuja‐Halkola, R., & Larsson, H. (2015) · American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B Neuropsychiatric Genetics · doi:10.1002/ajmg.b.32335 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Muller, A. E., Skurtveit, S. O., & Clausen, T. (2016) · Health and Quality of Life Outcomes · doi:10.1186/s12955-016-0439-1 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
The nature and nurture of ADHD and its comorbidities: A narrative review on twin studies
Tistarelli, N., Fagnani, C., Troianiello, M., Stazi, M. A., & Adriani, W. (2019) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.12.017 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Group exercise to improve quality of life among substance use disorder patients
Muller, A. E., & Clausen, T. (2014) · Scandinavian Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1177/1403494814561819 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
The role of cadherin genes in five major psychiatric disorders: A literature update
Hawi, Z., Tong, J., Dark, C., Yates, H., Johnson, B. P., & Bellgrove, M. A. (2017) · American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B Neuropsychiatric Genetics · doi:10.1002/ajmg.b.32592 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
What have we learned from recent twin studies about the etiology of neurodevelopmental disorders?
Posthuma, D., & Polderman, T. J. C. (2013) · Current Opinion in Neurology · doi:10.1097/wco.0b013e32835f19c3 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
ADHD, CD, and ODD: Systematic review of genetic and environmental risk factors
Azeredo, A., Moreira, D., & Barbosa, F. (2018) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2017.12.010 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Peterson, A. B., Hivick, D. P., & Lynch, W. J. (2014) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-014-3437-1 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Nonhuman primate models of social behavior and cocaine abuse
Nader, M. A., Czoty, P. W., Nader, S. H., & Morgan, D. (2012) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-012-2843-5 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Sobieraj, J. C., Kim, A., Fannon, M. J., & Mandyam, C. D. (2014) · Brain Structure and Function · doi:10.1007/s00429-014-0905-7 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Effects of combined exercise and progesterone treatments on cocaine seeking in male and female rats
Zlebnik, N. E., Saykao, A. T., & Carroll, M. E. (2014) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-014-3513-6 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Elsner, V. R., Basso, C. G., Bertoldi, K., de Meireles, L. C. F., Cechinel, L. R., & Siqueira, I. R. (2016) · The Journal of Physiological Sciences · doi:10.1007/s12576-016-0471-2 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Orrego, N. T., Pineda, D., & Uribe, L. H. (2012) · Revista de Neurología · doi:10.33588/rn.5405.2011144 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Rotheram‐Borus, M. J., Tomlinson, M., Mayekiso, A., Bantjes, J. R., Harris, D. M., Stewart, J., & Weiss, R. E. (2018) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-018-2804-3 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Psychophysiological and Psychosocial Profile of Patients Attending Drug Addiction Centers
Clemente‐Suárez, V. J., Ruisoto, P., Folgar, M. I., Cancelo-Martínez, J., Beltrán-Velasco, A. I., & Tornero-Aguilera, J. F. (2021) · Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback · doi:10.1007/s10484-021-09531-1 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Managing Substance Use Disorder through a Walking/Running Training Program
Dai, C., Chen, C., Richardson, G. B., & Gordon, H. R. D. (2020) · Substance Abuse Research and Treatment · doi:10.1177/1178221820936681 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Centifanti, L. C. M., Shaw, H., Atherton, K. J., Thomson, N. D., MacLellan, S., & Frick, P. J. (2019) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.19605.1 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Centifanti, L. C. M., Shaw, H., Atherton, K. J., Thomson, N. D., MacLellan, S., & Frick, P. J. (2020) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.19605.2 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Yasin, H., Bulatova, N., & Wazaify, M. (2021) · Substance Use & Misuse · doi:10.1080/10826084.2021.1958852 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
The Role of ADHD in the Etiology and Outcome of Antisocial Behavior and Psychopathy
von Polier, G. G., Herpertz‐Dahlmann, B., Konrad, K., & Vloet, T. D. (2020) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119159322.ch22 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Rogač, Ž., Stevanović, D., Bečanović, S., Dimitrijević, A., Andrić, I., Božić, L., & Nikolić, D. (2023) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/10870547231187150 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
ADHD and problem behaviour: A neuropsychological approach
Lalatović, S., Popović-Ćitić, B., Krstić, N. S., & Pavlović, V. (2026) · Psiholoska istrazivanja · doi:10.5937/psistra0-60223
- Authors
- Smith, A. K., Stasi, S. M., Rhee, S. H., Corley, R. P., Young, S. E., & Hewitt, J. K.
- Affiliations
- University of Colorado Boulder (US)
- Corresponding author
- Rhee, Soo Hyun
- Venue
- Frontiers in Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2011
- Volume
- 2
- Pages
- 3-3
- ISSN
- 1664-0640 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3089995
- OpenAlex
- W2154029852
- Cited by
- 22
- References
- 36
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2023: 1 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 2 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 1 · 2016: 2 · 2015: 1 · 2014: 4 · 2013: 1 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 1.54
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Frontiers in Psychiatry (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (P60DA011015)
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01HD050346, R01HD010333, T32HD007289)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychopathy, Forensic Psychiatry, Sexual Offending
- Keywords
- attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, conduct disorder, verbal ability, comorbidities, monozygotic and dizygotic twins, adolescent antisocial behavior, vocabulary
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
