Hydrothermal Liquefaction of Food Waste: Effect of Process Parameters on Product Yields and Chemistry
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Increasing food waste generation (1.6 billion tons per year globally) due to urban and industrial development has prompted researchers to pursue alternative waste management methods. Energy valorization of food waste is a method that can reduce the environmental impacts of landfills and the global reliance on crude oil for liquid fuels. In this study, food waste was converted to bio-crude oil via hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) in a batch reactor at moderate temperatures (240–295°C), reaction times (0–60 min), and 15 wt.% solids loading. The maximum HTL bio-crude oil yield (27.5 wt.%), and energy recovery (49%) were obtained at 240°C and 30 min, while the highest bio-crude oil energy content (40.2 MJ/kg) was observed at 295°C. The properties of the bio-crude oil were determined using thermogravimetric analysis, fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) analysis by gas chromatography with flame ionization detection, CHNS elemental analysis, and ultrahigh-resolution Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectroscopy (FT-ICR MS). FT-ICR MS results indicated that the majority of the detected compounds in the bio-crude oil were oxygen-containing species. The O 4 class was the most abundant class of heteroatom-containing compounds in all HTL bio-crude oil samples produced at 240°C; the O 2 class was the most abundant class obtained at 265 and 295°C. The total FAME content of the bio-crude oil was 15–37 wt.%, of which the most abundant were palmitic acid (C16:0), palmitoleic acid (C16:1), stearic acid (C18:0), and polyunsaturated fatty acids (C18:3N:3, C18:3N:6).
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Hydrothermal liquefaction operates at moderate temperatures (200-400°C) and high pressures (5-25 MPa) in water, accommodating wet feedstocks without drying, whereas pyrolysis generally uses higher temperatures (300-800°C) at near-atmospheric pressure and typically requires dried feedstock.
“Both hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) and pyrolysis are thermochemical solid-toliquid conversion pathways, but HTL operates at moderate temperatures (typically 200-400 • C) and high pressures (5-25 MPa) in the presence of water, thus accommodating wet feedstocks without prior drying, whereas pyrolysis generally employs higher temperatures (300-800 • C) at near-atmospheric pressure and typically”
From Biofuels, E-Fuels, and Waste-Derived Fuels: Advances, Challenges, and Future Directions (2025) · cites this paper as [375]
Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 1 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredPrimary products from hydrothermal liquefaction of waste materials are liquid bio-crude oil, aqueous phase with water-soluble organics, solid hydrochar, and gaseous fraction, with temperature typically most influential on yields and quality, alongside residence time and catalyst presence.
“The primary products generated from the hydrothermal liquefaction of waste materials are a liquid bio-crude oil, an aqueous phase containing water-soluble organics, a solid hydrochar, and a gaseous fraction, with temperature typically being the most influential process parameter determining their relative yields and quality, alongside residence time and catalyst presence [375,376].”
From Biofuels, E-Fuels, and Waste-Derived Fuels: Advances, Challenges, and Future Directions (2025) · cites this paper as [375]
Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredInherent heterogeneity, potential contamination (PVC leading to HCl emissions, sulfur in tires leading to SOx precursors), and inconsistent supply can pose significant technological challenges for waste-derived fuel conversion and product quality control.
“However, the inherent heterogeneity, potential contamination (e.g., PVC in plastics leading to HCl emissions [366], sulfur in tires leading to SOx precursors [375]), and inconsistent supply can pose significant technological challenges for conversion processes and product quality control.”
From Biofuels, E-Fuels, and Waste-Derived Fuels: Advances, Challenges, and Future Directions (2025) · cites this paper as [375]
The citation [375] is attached to the example of sulfur in tires producing SOx precursors. Our copy discusses food-waste composition and hydrothermal liquefaction in Food Waste Characterization and the Introduction (pages unavailable), but the passages found for tires, sulfur, and SOx do not address that example. (LLM, conf=0.76)
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- Authors
- Bayat, H., Dehghanizadeh, M., Jarvis, J. M., Brewer, C. E., & Jena, U.
- Affiliations
- New Mexico State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Jena, Umakanta
- Venue
- Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2021-05-24
- Volume
- 5
- ISSN
- 2571-581X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W3165233791
- Cited by
- 94
- References
- 103
- Citations by year
- 2026: 21 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 16 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 4
- FWCI
- 3.57
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (DMR-1,644,779, 1644779)
- U.S. Department of Energy (DMR-1644779)
- New Mexico State University
- National High Magnetic Field Laboratory (DMR - 1644779, 1644779)
- Division of Materials Research (1644779, DMR- 1644779)
- High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Chinese Academy of Sciences (DMR-1644779)
- State of Florida
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Thermochemical Biomass Conversion Processes
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanical Engineering › Catalysis and Hydrodesulfurization Studies
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Biofuel production and bioconversion
- Keywords
- hydrothermal liquefaction, food waste, bio-crude oil, process parameters, temperature effects, reaction time (chemistry), solid loading, energy recovery, fatty acid methyl esters, fatty acid composition, oxygenated compounds, heteroatom-containing compounds, waste valorization
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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