Nationwide Survey about the Occurrence of Aspergillosis in Captive Penguins in Zoos and Aquariums in Japan

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

To prevent aspergillosis, contact with Aspergillus must be minimized in penguins and the health of each penguin should be maintained.

“Therefore, to prevent aspergillosis, contact with Aspergillus must be minimized in penguins, and the health of each penguin should be maintained [28,29,30,31].”

• cites [28] Matsumoto, 2020, Detection of Aspergillus fumigatus in the captive environment and preventive measures leading to the eradication of penguin aspergillosis in an aquarium, Jpn. J. Zoo Wildl. Med. sourcePartly supported

  The paper describes avoiding a suspected A. fumigatus contamination site, washing penguins’ feet, and disinfecting contaminated areas—measures consistent with minimizing exposure (passage [6], section labeled Abstract; page unavailable). The passages do not recommend maintaining the health of each individual penguin, so that part of the claim is unsupported. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [29] Toyotome, 2022, Countermeasures against aspergillosis in captive penguins, Med. Mycol. J. sourceSupported
• cites [30] Hocken, 2000, Cause of death in Blue penguins (Eudyptula m. minor) in North Otago, New Zealand, N. Z. J. Zool. sourceCould not verify

  The Abstract reports that aspergillosis was the commonest natural disease among the blue penguins examined, but it does not discuss prevention. Searches for Aspergillus exposure and penguin health found no passage recommending either measure in the claim. (LLM, conf=0.72)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [31] Miller, R.E., and Fowler, M.E. (2015). Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine, Elsevier Saunders. [8th ed.].Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Aspergillus spores are hydrophobic and approximately 2.5 μm in diameter, allowing them to pass through the trachea to reach the air sacs and lungs and cause aspergillosis in immunocompromised humans and animals.

“Their spores are hydrophobic and extremely small, with a diameter of approximately 2.5 µm. Therefore, they easily pass through the trachea to reach the air sacs and lungs, which causes aspergillosis, a respiratory infection in immunocompromised humans and animals [4,20].”

• cites [4] AZA Penguin Taxon Advisory Group (2014). Penguin (Spheniscidae) Care Manual, Association of Zoos and Aquariums.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [20] Mateos, 2010, Polyclonal Aspergillus fumigatus infection in captive penguins, Vet. Microbiol. sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction (p. 2) describes aspergillosis as a fungal infection in birds, and §2.1 (Animals) reports A. fumigatus infection and lesions in the lungs and air sacs of penguins. Our copy does not state that spores are hydrophobic or approximately 2.5 µm across, that they pass through the trachea, or that this mechanism causes disease in immunocompromised humans and animals. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Aspergillus species are common fungi found in the environment, such as soil and air.

“The Aspergillus species [4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13] are common fungi found in the environment, such as soil and air [14,15,16,17,18,19].”

• cites [14] Chamilos, 2019, Aspergillus fumigatus and Aspergillosis in 2019, Clin. Microbiol. Rev. sourceSupported
• cites [15] Snelders, 2009, Possible environmental origin of resistance of Aspergillus fumigatus to medical triazoles, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. sourceSupported
• cites [16] Verweij, 2009, Azole resistance in Aspergillus fumigatus: A side-effect of environmental fungicide use?, Lancet Infect. Dis. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [17] Sewell, 2019, Elevated prevalence of azole resistant Aspergillus fumigatus in urban versus rural environments in the United Kingdom, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction describes A. fumigatus as ubiquitous, with a soil niche and airborne conidia; the Environmental A. fumigatus isolates section also reports its recovery from soil samples. These passages support the claim for A. fumigatus, but do not establish it for Aspergillus species generally. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [18] Hirose, 2022, Diversity and distribution of Aspergillus fumigatus and its related species in Izu and Ogasawara islands, Japan, Med. Mycol. J. sourceSupported
• cites [19] Toyotome, 2022, Azole-resistant Aspergillus fumigatus as an emerging worldwide pathogen, Microbiol. Immunol. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

In a previous report from the authors' aquarium, six aspergillosis cases occurred between 2009 and 2015, and no aspergillosis occurred from 2016 to 2020 after implementing measures to minimize penguin contact with soil.

“As a result, although the aquarium had six aspergillosis cases between 2009 and 2015, there was no incidence of aspergillosis from 2016 to 2020 [28,29].”

• cites [28] Matsumoto, 2020, Detection of Aspergillus fumigatus in the captive environment and preventive measures leading to the eradication of penguin aspergillosis in an aquarium, Jpn. J. Zoo Wildl. Med. sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 1 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [29] Toyotome, 2022, Countermeasures against aspergillosis in captive penguins, Med. Mycol. J. sourceSupported

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Aspergillosis is considered an opportunistic infectious disease.

“Aspergillosis is considered an opportunistic infectious disease [4,20].”

• cites [4] AZA Penguin Taxon Advisory Group (2014). Penguin (Spheniscidae) Care Manual, Association of Zoos and Aquariums.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [20] Mateos, 2010, Polyclonal Aspergillus fumigatus infection in captive penguins, Vet. Microbiol. sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A. fumigatus is the most pathogenic Aspergillus species causing severe respiratory symptoms in wild birds and poultry.

“In particular, A. fumigatus is the most pathogenic species that causes severe respiratory symptoms in wild birds and poultry [21,22].”

• cites [21] Thomas, N.J., Hunter, D.B., and Atkinson, C.T. (2008). Infectious Diseases of Wild Birds, Blackwell Publishing Professional. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [22] Obendorf, 1980, Mortality in little penguins (Eudyptula minor) along the coast of Victoria, Australia, J. Wildl. Dis. sourcePartly supported

  The penguin findings (section labelled “Contracaecum spiculigerum”; page unavailable) report pulmonary aspergillosis in two wild birds, and Histopathology describes lesions in their lungs and air sacs. The paper does not identify A. fumigatus, compare the pathogenicity of Aspergillus species, report severe respiratory symptoms, or address poultry. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

New technologies such as diagnosis with image analysis, plasma biomarkers, and probiotic-based vaccination might be useful in reducing the incidence of aspergillosis among penguins.

“New technologies, such as diagnosis with image analysis [25,27], plasma biomarkers [38], and probiotic-based vaccination [39], might be useful in reducing the incidence of aspergillosis among penguins.”

• cites [25] Itoh, 2020, Characteristic imaging findings of the respiratory ssystem in penguins with suspected aspergillosis in an aquarium, J. Vet. Med. Sci. sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion says CT findings, combined with blood screening, could help diagnose aspergillosis early and initiate treatment in penguins. It suggests early detection could prevent deaths, but does not show that imaging reduces the incidence of infection. The plasma-biomarker and probiotic-vaccination parts of the citing sentence have separate citations and are not attributed to this paper. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [27] Matsumoto, 2022, Evaluation of the air sac volume of penguins with respiratory diseases using computed tomography, J. Vet. Med. Sci. sourceSupported
• cites [38] Desoubeaux, 2018, Application of 3-Hydroxybutyrate measurement and plasma protein electrophoresis in the diagnosis of aspergillosis in African penguins (Spheniscus demersus), J. Zoo Wildl. Med. sourcePartly supported

  The conclusion (section labeled “200”) says 3-hydroxybutyrate measurement may help diagnose aspergillosis in penguins, especially alongside plasma protein electrophoresis. This supports the plasma-biomarker part of the citing sentence, but the paper does not establish that these tests reduce the incidence of aspergillosis. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [39] Thorel, 2022, Assessment of the safety and efficacy of an oral probiotic-based vaccine against Aspergillus infection in captive-bred Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti), Front. Immunol. sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In our previous study, Aspergillus fumigatus was detected from air conditioner vents.

“In our previous study [28,29], A. fumigatus was detected from air conditioner vents.”

• cites [28] Matsumoto, 2020, Detection of Aspergillus fumigatus in the captive environment and preventive measures leading to the eradication of penguin aspergillosis in an aquarium, Jpn. J. Zoo Wildl. Med. sourceSupported
• cites [29] Toyotome, 2022, Countermeasures against aspergillosis in captive penguins, Med. Mycol. J. sourcePartly supported

  The section discussing the previous study reports that swabs detected A. fumigatus on air conditioners and exhaust fans in the penguin rearing facility. It does not identify the sampled surfaces as air-conditioner vents specifically. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In the case of Okinawa rail, the authors described the environmental source of the causative agent.

“In the case of Okinawa rail, the authors described the environmental source of the causative agent [36].”

• cites [36] Kano, 2021, Antifungal drugs-low-susceptibility in Aspergillus Flavus isolated from a captively reared Okinawa rail (Hypotaenidia okinawae), J. Vet. Med. Sci. sourcePartly supported

  The paper describes soil and dead leaves in the rail’s enclosure as a possible source of Aspergillus infection. It also states that the authors found no evidence of the route of infection in this case, so it does not establish the environmental source of the causative agent. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

A mass outbreak of aspergillosis in kākāpō and one case in Okinawa rail were reported.

“Recently, a mass outbreak of aspergillosis in kākāpō (Strigops habroptilus) and one case in Okinawa rail (Hypotaenidia okinawae) were reported [34,36].”

• cites [34] Winter, 2022, A single fungal strain was the unexpected cause of a mass aspergillosis outbreak in the world’s largest and only flightless parrot, iScience sourceSupported
• cites [36] Kano, 2021, Antifungal drugs-low-susceptibility in Aspergillus Flavus isolated from a captively reared Okinawa rail (Hypotaenidia okinawae), J. Vet. Med. Sci. sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In the mass outbreak in kākāpō, a single strain caused aspergillosis, and the association between the ambient environment and aspergillosis was considered an important risk factor.

“In the mass outbreak in kākāpō, a single strain caused aspergillosis, and the association between the ambient environment and aspergillosis was considered an important risk factor [34].”

• cites [34] Winter, 2022, A single fungal strain was the unexpected cause of a mass aspergillosis outbreak in the world’s largest and only flightless parrot, iScience sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The main reason for moving penguins outside of the rearing enclosures was walking exercise (68% of groups).

“The main reason for moving penguins outside of the rearing enclosures was for walking exercise (68% of groups).”

May combine two claims.

Statistically higher aspergillosis death rates were reported among southern rockhopper (11.4%), little (10.2%), and Magellanic penguins (33.3%).

“Statistically higher death rates were reported among southern rockhopper (11.4%), little (10.2%), and Magellanic penguins (33.3%; Table 2).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The causes of death reported by keepers and veterinarians as aspergillosis were accurate.

May combine two claims.

Among Antarctic/sub-Antarctic penguins, contact with soil was associated with a higher incidence of aspergillosis (2/3 vs 6/43), but the difference was not significant (p = 0.073).

“Penguins that had contact with soil had a higher incidence of aspergillosis (2 of 3 groups) than those that did not have contact with soil in the rearing environment (6 of 43 groups). However, there was no significant difference between with and without aspergillosis groups (p = 0.073; Table 4).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Contact with soil is a valid proxy for exposure to Aspergillus spores.

May combine two claims.

26 of 54 dead penguins had contact with soil, and at least 48.1% were at risk of exposure to Aspergillus spores.

“Furthermore, 26 of 54 dead penguins had contact with soil, and at least 48.1% of the penguins were at risk of exposure to Aspergillus spores.”

May combine two claims.

The Adélie penguin was reared indoors and had no contact with soil.

“it was also reared indoors and had no contact with soil.”

May combine two claims.

The occurrence of aspergillosis in penguins was strongly related to outdoor enclosures of penguins (p < 0.01), moving of penguins outside the rearing enclosures (p < 0.01), and contact with soil (p < 0.01).

“In accordance with these results, the occurrence of aspergillosis in penguins was strongly related to outdoor enclosures of penguins (p < 0.01), moving of penguins outside the rearing enclosures (p < 0.01), and contact with soil (p < 0.01).”

May combine two claims.

The individual risk factors were being younger than a year, older than 20 years, or transferred from other facilities within the past year.

“That is, they were younger than a year, were older than 20 years, or had been transferred from other facilities within the past year.”

May combine two claims.

In this study, only uncomfortable environmental factors were detected in one penguin, and only exposure to Aspergillus spores was detected in four penguins.

“In this study, only uncomfortable environmental factors were detected in one penguin, and only exposure to Aspergillus spores was detected in four penguins.”

May combine two claims.

For Antarctic/sub-Antarctic penguin species, the correlation between aspergillosis occurrence and contact with soil was not significant, but the number of facilities where these species had access to soil was less.

“The correlation between the occurrence of aspergillosis and contact with soil was not significant for the Antarctic/sub-Antarctic penguin species; however, the number of facilities where these species had access to soil was less.”

May combine two claims.

One Adélie penguin died of aspergillosis, and this was the only case of death due to aspergillosis among 500 penguins at the facility.

“One Adélie penguin died of aspergillosis, but this was the only case of death due to aspergillosis among 500 penguins at the facility.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Some facilities include soil and plants in outdoor penguin enclosures to resemble their habitats in the wild.

“Some facilities include soil and plants in outdoor penguin enclosures to resemble their habitats in the wild.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Many facilities had implemented various countermeasures to decrease the incidence of aspergillosis among penguins, including prevention, early detection, and preemptive aggressive treatment, of which some are crucial.

“Many facilities had implemented various countermeasures to decrease the incidence of aspergillosis among penguins, including prevention, early detection, and preemptive aggressive treatment, of which some are crucial.”

May combine two claims.

In this study, aspergillosis was not observed in emperor penguins, chinstrap penguins, or northern rockhopper penguins.

“Aspergillosis was not observed in emperor penguins, chinstrap penguins, or northern rockhopper penguins in this study.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

According to the AZA Penguin Care Manual, optimal air temperature ranges are −6 °C to 7 °C for Antarctic/sub-Antarctic penguins and 4.5 °C to 26.5 °C for temperate penguins.

“For Antarctic/sub-Antarctic penguin species, the optimal air temperature ranges from −6 °C to 7 °C. However, the optimal air temperature of temperate penguins ranges from 4.5 °C to 26.5 °C.”

• cites [3] AZA Penguin Taxon Advisory Group (2014). Penguin (Spheniscidae) Care Manual, Association of Zoos and Aquariums.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Aspergillosis might occur in stressed conditions, and putative stressors include inadequate heat or cold environment, stressful relocation, breeding, and molting.

“Aspergillosis might occur in stressed conditions. Putative stressors have been associated with inadequate heat or cold environment, stressful relocation, breeding, and molting [4].”

• cites [4] AZA Penguin Taxon Advisory Group (2014). Penguin (Spheniscidae) Care Manual, Association of Zoos and Aquariums.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Aspergillus is ubiquitous in soil.

“Aspergillus is ubiquitous in soil.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Waterbirds in captivity are more susceptible to aspergillosis than land birds.

“Hllgarth and Kear [23] revealed that waterbirds in captivity are more susceptible to aspergillosis than land birds.”

• cites [23] Hillgarth, 1979, Diseases of seaducks in captivity, WildfowlNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The three most common Aspergillus species causing aspergillosis are A. fumigatus, A. niger, and A. flavus, which are also major producers of mycotoxin aflatoxin.

“The three most common species of the Aspergillus genus that cause aspergillosis are A. fumigatus, A. niger, and A. flavus, which are also major producers of mycotoxin aflatoxin [21].”

• cites [21] Thomas, N.J., Hunter, D.B., and Atkinson, C.T. (2008). Infectious Diseases of Wild Birds, Blackwell Publishing Professional. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Environmental interventions, such as keeping away from soil, might be effective in further reducing the incidence of aspergillosis.

“As further measures, environmental interventions, such as keeping away from soil, might be effective in further reducing the incidence of aspergillosis.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Combined measures focusing on individual and environmental risk factors and consultation with keepers, veterinarians, and microbiologists can be useful in controlling the incidence of aspergillosis.

“Combined measures focusing on individual and environmental risk factors as well as consultation of keepers, veterinarians, and microbiologists, such as mycobiologists, regarding rearing environment can be useful in controlling the incidence of aspergillosis.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Clothes and items brought into rearing facilities cause the invasion of Aspergillus spores in facilities.

“Moreover, Aspergillus is extremely common in the environment, which suggests that clothes and items brought into rearing facilities cause the invasion of Aspergillus spores in facilities.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Aspergillus is extremely common in the environment.

May combine two claims.

In temperate penguin species, contact with other penguins and soil increased exposure to Aspergillus spores, which might be a risk factor for aspergillosis.

“Even in temperate penguin species, contact with other penguins and soil increased exposure to Aspergillus spores, which might be a risk factor for aspergillosis.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Flach et al. reported that chicks (≤1 year) of gentoo penguins were the most susceptible.

“Flach et al. [7] reported that chicks (≤1 year) of gentoo penguins were the most susceptible.”

• cites [7] Flach, 1990, Aspergillosis in gentoo penguins (Pygoscelis papua) at Edinburgh Zoo, 1964–1988, Vet. Rec.Not checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The death rate from aspergillosis in captive penguins in Japan is currently much lower, and the preventive measures implemented are effective as basic measures.

“However, the death rate is currently much lower, and the preventive measures implemented are effective as basic measures.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

We did not obtain information on the type of soil used for the basement in this survey.

“However, we did not obtain information on the type of soil used for the basement in this survey.”

May combine two claims.

Aspergillosis in captive penguins was caused by the combination of individual risk factors (young and old ages), uncomfortable environments (high temperature and humidity), and rearing environments susceptible to exposure to Aspergillus spores (such as contact with soil).

“As demonstrated in this study, aspergillosis was caused by the combination of individual risk factors, such as young and old ages; uncomfortable environments, such as high temperature and humidity; and rearing environments susceptible to exposure to Aspergillus spores, such as contact with soil.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The results obtained in this study agree with our previous results.

“The results obtained in this study agree with our previous results.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The methods of investigation of the earlier research differed from ours; therefore, simple comparisons are difficult to make.

“The methods of investigation of the earlier research differed from ours; therefore, simple comparisons are difficult to make.”

May combine two claims.

To the best of the authors' knowledge, surveys of aspergillosis in captive penguins have not been reported in Japan for several decades, and a nationwide survey on the occurrence of aspergillosis, rearing conditions, and countermeasures has not been performed for several decades in Japan.

“To the best of our knowledge, surveys of aspergillosis in captive penguins have not been reported in Japan for several decades.”

• Also stated in: § Simple Summary · plain

  “In addition, a nationwide survey on the occurrence of aspergillosis, rearing conditions, and countermeasures has not been performed for several decades in Japan.”

• cites [32] Inokashira park zoo (1971). A survey of captive penguins in Japan (Japanese). J. Jpn. Assoc. Zool. Gard. Aquar., 13, 62–69.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Captive penguins in Japan are exposed to hot and humid conditions, and their immune systems may be weakened as a result of young or old age.

“In addition, captive penguins are exposed to hot and humid conditions in Japan, and their immune systems may be weakened as a result of young or old age.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The climate in Japan is hot and humid for penguins.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Environmental interventions might be an effective and easy method for decreasing the risk of aspergillosis, which should be considered a priority.

“However, environmental interventions might be an effective and easy method for decreasing the risk of aspergillosis, which should be considered a priority.”

May combine two claims.

The trends in temperate penguin species are similar to those of Antarctic/sub-Antarctic penguin species, with out-of-home migration and contact with soil as the major risk factors for aspergillosis development.

“The trends in temperate penguin species, as shown in Table 4, are similar to those of Antarctic/sub-Antarctic penguin species as discussed above, with out-of-home migration and contact with soil as the major risk factors for aspergillosis development.”

May combine two claims.

Uncomfortable environmental factors were a source of stress for the penguins and a possible risk factor for the development of aspergillosis.

“These uncomfortable environmental factors were a source of stress for the penguins and a possible risk factor for the development of aspergillosis.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Aspergillosis is common among birds younger than 1 year.

“According to a previous report, aspergillosis is common among birds younger than 1 year [7].”

• cites [7] Flach, 1990, Aspergillosis in gentoo penguins (Pygoscelis papua) at Edinburgh Zoo, 1964–1988, Vet. Rec.Not checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Multiple risk factors were involved in the development of aspergillosis, but other risks were not validated in this study.

“Although multiple risk factors were involved in the development of aspergillosis, other risks were not validated in this study.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Antarctic/sub-Antarctic penguins are already recommended to be housed in cooler temperatures than temperate species.

“The Antarctic/sub-Antarctic penguins are already recommended to be housed in cooler temperatures than temperate species [3].”

• cites [3] AZA Penguin Taxon Advisory Group (2014). Penguin (Spheniscidae) Care Manual, Association of Zoos and Aquariums.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.