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Cited by 491Environmental Impact and SustainabilityExtraction and Separation ProcessesElectric Vehicles and Infrastructure

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 27 of the 27 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Life Cycle Analysis of Lithium-Ion Batteries for Automotive Applications

Open access
Dai, Qiang, Kelly, Jarod C., Gaines, Linda, Wang, Michael·2019·Batteries
DOI 10.3390/batteries5020048
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Abstract

In light of the increasing penetration of electric vehicles (EVs) in the global vehicle market, understanding the environmental impacts of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) that characterize the EVs is key to sustainable EV deployment. This study analyzes the cradle-to-gate total energy use, greenhouse gas emissions, SOx, NOx, PM10 emissions, and water consumption associated with current industrial production of lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) batteries, with the battery life cycle analysis (LCA) module in the Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Transportation (GREET) model, which was recently updated with primary data collected from large-scale commercial battery material producers and automotive LIB manufacturers. The results show that active cathode material, aluminum, and energy use for cell production are the major contributors to the energy and environmental impacts of NMC batteries. However, this study also notes that the impacts could change significantly, depending on where in the world the battery is produced, and where the materials are sourced. In an effort to harmonize existing LCAs of automotive LIBs and guide future research, this study also lays out differences in life cycle inventories (LCIs) for key battery materials among existing LIB LCA studies, and identifies knowledge gaps.

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Crossref · 10.3390/batteries5020048

Cites

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Figures

Figure 1 Cradle-to-gate system boundary of LiNi1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2 (NMC111) battery production. Figure 1. Cradle-to-gate system boundary of LiNi1 / 3 Mn1 / 3 Co1 / 3 O 2 (NMC111) battery production.
Figure 1 Cradle-to-gate system boundary of LiNi1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2 (NMC111) battery production. Figure 1. Cradle-to-gate system boundary of LiNi1 / 3 Mn1 / 3 Co1 / 3 O 2 (NMC111) battery production.CC-BY · From the PDF
Figure 2 Cradle-to-gate impact breakdowns and bill of materials (BOM) of 1 kWh NMC111 battery. Blue denotes material inputs; orange denotes energy inputs for cell production. Figure 2. Cradle-to-gate impact breakdowns and bill of materials (BOM) of 1 kWh NMC111 battery. Blue denotes material inputs; orange denotes energy inputs for cell production.
Figure 2 Cradle-to-gate impact breakdowns and bill of materials (BOM) of 1 kWh NMC111 battery. Blue denotes material inputs; orange denotes energy inputs for cell production. Figure 2. Cradle-to-gate impact breakdowns and bill of materials (BOM) of 1 kWh NMC111 battery. Blue denotes material inputs; orange denotes energy inputs for cell production.CC-BY · From the PDF
Figure 3 Energyandenvironmentalimpactbreakdownsof1kgNMC111powder. Bluedenotesmaterial inputs; orange denotes energy inputs and non-combustion emissions for NMC111 powder production.
Figure 3 Energyandenvironmentalimpactbreakdownsof1kgNMC111powder. Bluedenotesmaterial inputs; orange denotes energy inputs and non-combustion emissions for NMC111 powder production.CC-BY · From the PDF
Figure 4 Process energy use for the production of 1 kWh NMC111 battery and its material constituents, assuming all materials are virgin. Figure 4. Process energy use for the production of 1 kWh NMC111 battery and its material constituents, assuming all materials are virgin.
Figure 4 Process energy use for the production of 1 kWh NMC111 battery and its material constituents, assuming all materials are virgin. Figure 4. Process energy use for the production of 1 kWh NMC111 battery and its material constituents, assuming all materials are virgin.CC-BY · From the PDF

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Metadata

Authors
Dai, Q., Kelly, J. C., Gaines, L., & Wang, M.
Affiliations
Argonne National Laboratory (US)
Corresponding author
Dai, Qiang
ORCID
Venue
Batteries
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2019-06-01
Volume
5
Issue
2
Pages
48
ISSN
2313-0105 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/batteries5020048
OpenAlex
W2947177723
Cited by
491
References
27
Citations by year
2026: 81 · 2025: 86 · 2024: 67 · 2023: 80 · 2022: 79 · 2021: 71 · 2020: 23 · 2019: 3
FWCI
18.65
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Batteries (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
  • OSTI OAI (U.S. Department of Energy Office of Scientific and Technical Information) (submittedVersion)
Funders
U.S. Department of Energy (DE-AC02-06CH11357)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Environmental Impact and Sustainability
  • Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Metals and Alloys › Extraction and Separation Processes
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Electric Vehicles and Infrastructure
Keywords
lithium-ion batteries, electric vehicles, NCM cathode, life cycle assessment, cradle-to-gate emissions, energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, air pollutant emissions, water consumption, battery cell manufacturing, aluminum, GREET model

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