Globally regional life cycle analysis of automotive lithium-ion nickel manganese cobalt batteries
Open accessAbstract
Electric vehicles based on lithium-ion batteries (LIB) have seen rapid growth over the past decade as they are viewed as a cleaner alternative to conventional fossil-fuel burning vehicles, especially for local pollutant (nitrogen oxides [NO x ], sulfur oxides [SO x ], and particulate matter with diameters less than 2.5 and 10 μm [PM 2.5 and PM 10 ]) and CO 2 emissions. However, LIBs are known to have their own energy and environmental challenges. This study focuses on LIBs made of lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC), since they currently dominate the United States (US) and global automotive markets and will continue to do so into the foreseeable future. The effects of globalized production of NMC, especially LiNi 1/3 Mn 1/3 Co 1/3 O 2 (NMC111), are examined, considering the potential regional variability at several important stages of production. This study explores regional effects of alumina reduction and nickel refining, along with the production of NMC cathode, battery cells, and battery management systems. Of primary concern is how production of these battery materials and components in different parts of the world may impact the battery’s life cycle pollutant emissions and total energy and water consumption. Since energy sources for heat and electricity generation are subject to great regional variation, we anticipated significant variability in the energy and emissions associated with LIB production. We configured Argonne National Laboratory’s Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in Transportation (GREET®) model as the basis for this study with key input data from several world regions. In particular, the study examined LIB production in the US, China, Japan, South Korea, and Europe, with details of supply chains and the electrical grid in these regions. Results indicate that 27-kWh automotive NMC111 LIBs produced via a European-dominant supply chain generate 65 kg CO 2 e/kWh, while those produced via a Chinese-dominant supply chain generate 100 kg CO 2 e/kWh. Further, there are significant regional differences for local pollutants associated with LIB, especially SO x emissions related to nickel production. We find that no single regional supply chain outperforms all others in every evaluation metric, but the data indicate that supply chains powered by renewable electricity provide the greatest emission reduction potential.
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Studies by Kelly et al. (2020) and Winjobi et al. (2022) have relied on a single database, the GREET model, and focused on a single chemistry, NMC and its variations.
“Studies by Kelly et al. (2020) and Winjobi et al. (2022) have explored regional variations on the CF of LIBs based on market-dominant battery manufacturing supply chains.However, both studies have relied on a single database, the Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Transport (GREET) model, and focused on a single chemistry, lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) and its”
From Think global act local: The dependency of global lithium-ion battery emissions on production location and material sources (2024) · cites this paper as Kelly et al. (2020)
Both studies have represented China as a single entity which does not capture province-level variations within the world's largest battery manufacturing country.
“In addition, both studies have represented China as a single entity which does not capture province-level variations within the world's largest battery manufacturing country.”
From Think global act local: The dependency of global lithium-ion battery emissions on production location and material sources (2024) · cites this paper as Kelly et al. (2020)
Previous research has shown that batteries produced in China come with 26%-140% higher carbon footprint compared to those produced in Europe or the United States.
“Previous research has shown that batteries produced in China come with 26 %-140 % higher CF compared to those produced in Europe or the United States (Kallitsis et al., 2022a;Kelly et al., 2020;Linder et al., 2023).”
From Think global act local: The dependency of global lithium-ion battery emissions on production location and material sources (2024) · cites this paper as Kelly et al., 2020
This is in line with published literature claiming that, on average, batteries manufactured in Europe or North America have a lower CF than those manufactured in China.
“This is in line with published literature claiming that, on average, batteries manufactured in Europe or North America have a lower CF than those manufactured in China (Kallitsis et al., 2020;Kelly et al., 2020;Linder et al., 2023).”
From Think global act local: The dependency of global lithium-ion battery emissions on production location and material sources (2024) · cites this paper as Kelly et al., 2020
Kelly et al. (2020) tried to tackle such issue by building hypothetical scenarios on specific supply chains without defining a specific manufacturer for each battery cell.
“Kelly et al. (2020) tried to tackle such issue by building hypothetical scenarios on specific supply chains without defining a specific manufacturer for each battery cell.”
From Think global act local: The dependency of global lithium-ion battery emissions on production location and material sources (2024) · cites this paper as Kelly et al., 2020
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- Authors
- Kelly, J. C., Dai, Q., & Wang, M.
- Affiliations
- Argonne National Laboratory (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kelly, Jarod C.
- Venue
- Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change
- Published
- 2019-08-28
- Volume
- 25
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 371-396
- ISSN
- 1381-2386 (ISSN-L)
- 1573-1596
- OpenAlex
- W2970940464
- Cited by
- 134
- References
- 24
- Citations by year
- 2026: 19 · 2025: 27 · 2024: 22 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 7
- FWCI
- 4.88
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Update notices
- correction (2020-05-29)
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- OSTI OAI (U.S. Department of Energy Office of Scientific and Technical Information) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Vehicle Technologies Office (DE-AC02-06CH11357)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Environmental Impact and Sustainability
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Electric Vehicles and Infrastructure
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanical Engineering › Extraction and Separation Processes
- Keywords
- lithium-ion batteries, NMC111 cathode, electric vehicles, battery supply chain, regional variation, greenhouse gas emissions, SOx emissions, nickel refining, alumina reduction, battery consumption, water consumption, renewable electricity, GREET model, battery management systems
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