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Small Extracellular Vesicles’ miRNAs: Biomarkers and Therapeutics for Neurodegenerative Diseases

Lim, Wei Qing, Michelle Luk, Kie Hoon, Lee, Kah Yee, Nurul, Nasuha, Loh, Sin Jade, Yeow, Zhen Xiong, Wong, Qi Xuan, Daniel Looi, Qi Hao, Chong, Pan Pan, How, Chee Wun, Hamzah, Sharina, Foo, Jhi Biau·2023·Pharmaceutics
DOI 10.3390/pharmaceutics15041216PMC PMC10143523
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Abstract

Neurodegenerative diseases are critical in the healthcare system as patients suffer from progressive diseases despite currently available drug management. Indeed, the growing ageing population will burden the country’s healthcare system and the caretakers. Thus, there is a need for new management that could stop or reverse the progression of neurodegenerative diseases. Stem cells possess a remarkable regenerative potential that has long been investigated to resolve these issues. Some breakthroughs have been achieved thus far to replace the damaged brain cells; however, the procedure’s invasiveness has prompted scientists to investigate using stem-cell small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) as a non-invasive cell-free therapy to address the limitations of cell therapy. With the advancement of technology to understand the molecular changes of neurodegenerative diseases, efforts have been made to enrich stem cells’ sEVs with miRNAs to increase the therapeutic efficacy of the sEVs. In this article, the pathophysiology of various neurodegenerative diseases is highlighted. The role of miRNAs from sEVs as biomarkers and treatments is also discussed. Lastly, the applications and delivery of stem cells and their miRNA-enriched sEVs for treating neurodegenerative diseases are emphasised and reviewed.

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Figure 1 Pathophysiology of Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease. Generally, the formation of amyloid-β plaques and neurofibrillary tangles results in neuron loss and degeneration. This triggers an uncontrolled immune response resulting in BBB leakage and neuroinflammation (created with BioRender.com) (accessed on 3 January 2023).
Figure 1 Pathophysiology of Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease. Generally, the formation of amyloid-β plaques and neurofibrillary tangles results in neuron loss and degeneration. This triggers an uncontrolled immune response resulting in BBB leakage and neuroinflammation (created with BioRender.com) (accessed on 3 January 2023).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 2 Pathophysiology of Huntington’s disease. In the early stage, the aggregates delay axonal transport, resulting in a failed delivery of GABA(A), which inhibits the synaptic excitability of the subthalamic nucleus. As a result, the compensatory mechanism of the thalamus leads to hyperkinesia. In the late stage, the trafficking of NMDA receptors in striatal neurons is affected and may cause an imbalance between synaptic and extrasynaptic NMDA receptors. This leads to excitotoxicity either due to increased glutamate or impaired uptake and clearance. Ultimately, bradykinesia is observed (created with BioRender.com) (accessed on 5 January 2023).
Figure 2 Pathophysiology of Huntington’s disease. In the early stage, the aggregates delay axonal transport, resulting in a failed delivery of GABA(A), which inhibits the synaptic excitability of the subthalamic nucleus. As a result, the compensatory mechanism of the thalamus leads to hyperkinesia. In the late stage, the trafficking of NMDA receptors in striatal neurons is affected and may cause an imbalance between synaptic and extrasynaptic NMDA receptors. This leads to excitotoxicity either due to increased glutamate or impaired uptake and clearance. Ultimately, bradykinesia is observed (created with BioRender.com) (accessed on 5 January 2023).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 3 Pathophysiology of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. The dying forward hypothesis states that ALS results in anterograde corticomotor neuron degeneration. In the dying back hypothesis, mutations in the TDP-43, c9orf72, and FUS genes form intracellular neuronal aggregates. The independent degeneration hypothesis argues that upper and lower motor neuron degeneration occurs independently (created with BioRender.com) (accessed on 8 January 2023).
Figure 3 Pathophysiology of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. The dying forward hypothesis states that ALS results in anterograde corticomotor neuron degeneration. In the dying back hypothesis, mutations in the TDP-43, c9orf72, and FUS genes form intracellular neuronal aggregates. The independent degeneration hypothesis argues that upper and lower motor neuron degeneration occurs independently (created with BioRender.com) (accessed on 8 January 2023).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 4 The ability of sEVs’ miRNAs to cross the blood-brain barrier presents an opportunity to correct endogenous miRNAs’ levels through miRNAs/anti-miRNAs treatment (created with BioRender.com) (accessed on 13 January 2023).
Figure 4 The ability of sEVs’ miRNAs to cross the blood-brain barrier presents an opportunity to correct endogenous miRNAs’ levels through miRNAs/anti-miRNAs treatment (created with BioRender.com) (accessed on 13 January 2023).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 5 miRNA-enriched sEVs can be transmitted to target cells via three methods which are fusion, endocytosis, and receptor–ligand interactions (created with BioRender.com) (accessed on 13 January 2023).
Figure 5 miRNA-enriched sEVs can be transmitted to target cells via three methods which are fusion, endocytosis, and receptor–ligand interactions (created with BioRender.com) (accessed on 13 January 2023).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 6 Advantages and disadvantages of miRNA-enriched small extracellular vesicles.
Figure 6 Advantages and disadvantages of miRNA-enriched small extracellular vesicles.CC BY · PubMed Central

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Metadata

Authors
Lim, W. Q., Michelle Luk, K. H., Lee, K. Y., Nurul, N., Loh, S. J., Yeow, Z. X., Wong, Q. X., Daniel Looi, Q. H., Chong, P. P., How, C. W., Hamzah, S., & Foo, J. B.
Affiliations
  • School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Taylor’s University, Subang Jaya 47500, Selangor, Malaysia
  • My CytoHealth Sdn. Bhd., Lab 6, DMC Level 2, Hive 5, Taman Teknologi MRANTI, Bukit Jalil, Kuala Lumpur 57000, Malaysia
  • National Orthopaedic Centre of Excellence for Research and Learning (NOCERAL), Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
  • School of Pharmacy, Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Subang Jaya 47500, Selangor, Malaysia
ORCID
Venue
Pharmaceutics
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2023-04-11
Volume
15
Issue
4
Pages
1216
ISSN
1999-4923
DOI
10.3390/pharmaceutics15041216
PMC
PMC10143523
Cited by
25
References
11
Language
en
Licence
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (vor)
Funders
My CytoHealth Sdn. Bhd

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