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Cited by 5Oceanographic and Atmospheric ProcessesClimate variability and modelsCoastal and Marine Dynamics

Baseline Climatology of the Canary Current Upwelling System and Evolution of Sea Surface Temperature

Open access
Mills, Lara, Janeiro, João, Martins, Flávio·2024·Remote Sensing
DOI 10.3390/rs16030504
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Abstract

Global climate change has induced a rise in sea surface temperature (SST), although this increase is not uniform across the world. Significant variations exist between coastal and offshore waters, particularly in regions affected by upwelling processes. This study focuses on the Canary Current Upwelling System (CCUS), stretching from Northwest Iberia to Northwest Africa. High-resolution remotely sensed SST data (0.05°) from the ODYSSEA Level 4 Sea Surface Temperature Reprocessed dataset were validated with in situ measurements and employed to establish a regional climatological baseline for 1982–2012. Subsequent years were compared to this baseline to construct SST anomaly maps, revealing SST changes since 2012. The study area was further divided into sub-regions for comparative analysis. Results indicate that SST consistently increased at a higher rate offshore compared to the adjacent nearshore regions. A reference dataset spanning 1951–1981 was used to gauge SST variability between the two baselines. SST exhibited a 0.59 °C increase from 1951–1981 to 1982–2012, with a slowing of SST trends beyond the 1982–2012 baseline. This research offers valuable insights into the climatological dynamics of the CCUS. These findings enhance our understanding of this critical coastal system’s climatology, laying the groundwork for future investigations into evolving climate patterns in coastal regions.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This study establishes a high-resolution satellite SST climatological baseline for the Canary Current Upwelling System (CCUS) and compares it with historical and newer baselines. It finds a 0.59 °C SST increase from 1951–1981 to 1982–2012, with warming consistently stronger offshore than in adjacent nearshore upwelling regions and a slowing of trends after 1982–2012.

Key findings

  • Satellite SST validation against four mooring buoys gave RMSE values of 0.333–0.439 °C, BIAS values of 0.021–0.080 °C except Gran Canaria at −0.200 °C, and MSS values of 0.959–0.984.
  • The 1982–2012 30-year climatological mean SST was 18.29 °C, 0.59 °C higher than the 1951–1981 mean of 17.70 °C; the 1991–2020 baseline was 18.38 °C, only 0.09 °C above 1982–2012.
  • Between the 1951–1981 and 1982–2012 baselines, offshore warming exceeded nearshore warming: Canary offshore +0.54 °C vs. nearshore +0.17 °C; West Iberia offshore +0.43 °C vs. nearshore +0.17 °C; SW Iberia offshore +0.84 °C vs. nearshore +0.24 °C.
  • Anomaly maps after 1982–2012 showed more warming cells offshore and white/blue cells nearshore, except in 2013 and 2018; between 1982–2012 and 1991–2020, Cape São Vicente registered a decrease of 0.1–0.2 °C.

Methods

  • Used the ODYSSEA Level 4 Sea Surface Temperature Reprocessed dataset at 0.05° daily gap-free resolution from 1982 to 2020, based on nighttime satellite observations representing SST at 20 cm depth, over 27°N–46°N and 20°W–5°W.
  • Validated the satellite product with hourly mooring buoy data from Gran Canaria, Faro, Gulf of Cadiz, and Cabo Silleiro using RMSE, BIAS, and Willmott’s model skill score (MSS).
  • Computed WMO/C3S-style climatological normals for 1982–2012 and 1991–2020, compared them with the 1951–1981 ERSST baseline, and analyzed monthly, yearly, and seasonal SST anomalies across six nearshore/offshore sub-regions.

Limitations

  • The paper states that remotely sensed data have limitations and validates the product with in situ measurements; it notes that the 0.05° (5 km) resolution cannot detect some smaller water-circulation features, and that the reanalysis-based product may smooth local variations, as seen at Gran Canaria.
  • The paper states that further investigation is needed into specific upwelling mechanisms and their differential effects on SST, and that finer-resolution remotely sensed data will be crucial for nearshore upwelling features.
  • Evident from the text: the provided manuscript contains duplicated paragraphs and an incomplete/misordered rationale for the six regions, but this is an editorial issue rather than an analytical limitation stated by the authors.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/rs16030504

Cites

36 of 36 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

11 of 20 cited sources checked · 9 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Upwelling can only be detected near the coast.

    “However, given that upwelling can only be detected near the coast, it is imperative to use satellite data with a fine spatial resolution [4].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [4] Lima, 2012, Three Decades of High-Resolution Coastal Sea Surface Temperatures Reveal More than Warming, Nat. Commun. source

      The Continental-scale latitudinal transects section discusses coastal currents associated with upwelling, and the Calculation of warming rates section explains why the study sampled pixels close to land. Neither says that upwelling can only be detected near the coast. Searches for that detection limit and for offshore upwelling found no passage addressing it; page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.74)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Major differences in sea surface temperature change have been observed between coastal waters and offshore waters.

    “major differences have been observed between coastal waters and offshore waters [4,6].”
    • Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
      “Significant variations exist between coastal and offshore waters, particularly in regions affected by upwelling processes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [4] Lima, 2012, Three Decades of High-Resolution Coastal Sea Surface Temperatures Reveal More than Warming, Nat. Commun. source
    • cites [6] Varela, 2018, Coastal Warming and Wind-Driven Upwelling: A Global Analysis, Sci. Total Environ. source
  • Premisecitation

    There is a lack of agreement on the conclusions of studies on long-term SST trends and interannual variability in the CCUS due to different analyses and approaches.

    “However, there is a lack of agreement on the conclusions of these studies due to the different analyses and approaches in detecting long-term trends and the interannual variability of SST in the region [24].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [24] Gallego, D., García-Herrera, R., Mohino, E., Losada, T., and Rodríguez-Fonseca, B. (2022). Secular Variability of the Upwelling at the Canaries Latitude: An Instrumental Approach. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans, 127. source

      The Introduction (page unavailable) says that analyses of long-term trends and interannual variability in Canary upwelling have reached contradictory conclusions, largely because of the observations used to quantify upwelling. It identifies SST gradients as one measure, but does not specifically say that studies of SST trends and SST interannual variability disagree. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Interpretationcitation

    The divergence between the SST patterns in Figure 8d,f can be attributed to variations in the intensity of upwelling processes occurring near Cape São Vicente.

    “The divergence between the SST patterns in Figure 8d,f can be attributed to variations in the intensity of upwelling processes occurring near Cape São Vicente, as described by Relvas and Barton [16].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Relvas and Barton [16] Relvas, P., and Barton, E.D. (2002). Mesoscale Patterns in the Cape São Vicente (Iberian Peninsula) Upwelling Region. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans, 107. source
  • Premisecitation

    Previous studies analyzing SST in the CCUS have drawn similar conclusions about the slower rate of SST warming nearshore compared to offshore.

    “Previous studies analyzing SST in the CCUS have drawn similar conclusions about the slower rate of SST warming nearshore compared to offshore [21].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [21] Varela, 2022, Influence of Canary Upwelling System on Coastal SST Warming along the 21st Century Using CMIP6 GCMs, Glob. Planet. Chang. source
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 11
  • May combine two claims. 26
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 3

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Global climate change has led to a rise in sea surface temperature throughout the world's oceans.

    “Global climate change has led to a rise in sea surface temperature (SST) throughout the world's oceans.”
    • Also stated in: § Abstract · hedged
      “Global climate change has induced a rise in sea surface temperature (SST), although this increase is not uniform across the world.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [3] Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2015). Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report: Longer Report. source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    A recent study found that the rate of warming in coastal waters is slower than in adjacent offshore waters.

    “A recent study has compared remotely sensed SST data with a resolution of 0.25 • to climate models and has found that the rate of warming in coastal waters is slower than that in adjacent offshore waters [21].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [21] Varela, 2022, Influence of Canary Upwelling System on Coastal SST Warming along the 21st Century Using CMIP6 GCMs, Glob. Planet. Chang. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Lima and Wethey [4] found higher decadal rates of sea surface temperature change in coastal waters compared to the global ocean, based on remotely sensed SST data.

    “A study by Lima and Wethey [4] found higher decadal rates of SST change in coastal waters compared to the global ocean based on remotely sensed SST data.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [4] Lima, 2012, Three Decades of High-Resolution Coastal Sea Surface Temperatures Reveal More than Warming, Nat. Commun. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Lima and Wethey [4] found decreases in sea surface temperature in the California and Humboldt currents, but increases in the areas of the Canary current and Benguela current.

    “Lima and Wethey [4] found decreases in SST in the California and Humboldt currents, but increases in SST in the areas of the Canary current and Benguela current.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [4] Lima, 2012, Three Decades of High-Resolution Coastal Sea Surface Temperatures Reveal More than Warming, Nat. Commun. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    These results are consistent with other findings on the spatial distribution of SST in this region during this time period.

    “These results are consistent with other findings on the spatial distribution of SST in this region during this time period [21].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [21] Varela, 2022, Influence of Canary Upwelling System on Coastal SST Warming along the 21st Century Using CMIP6 GCMs, Glob. Planet. Chang. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Similar results were also found by Varela et al. [21], who used climate models to evaluate SST trends in the Canary Current Upwelling System.

    “Similar results were also found by Varela et al. [21], who used climate models to evaluate SST trends in the Canary Current Upwelling System.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [21] Varela, 2022, Influence of Canary Upwelling System on Coastal SST Warming along the 21st Century Using CMIP6 GCMs, Glob. Planet. Chang. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The warmest year on record (2017) had a yearly mean SST of 18.72 °C and demonstrates the most substantial difference in SST compared to the remaining records.

    “the warmest year on record (2017) with a yearly mean SST of 18.72 • C (represented by the orange line in Figure 5) demonstrates the most substantial difference in SST when compared to the remaining records.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The anomaly maps of Figure 6 show more red areas, corresponding with an SST increase offshore, while areas around the coastline remain white or blue, corresponding to decreases in SST compared to the 1982-2012 baseline.

    “The anomaly maps of Figure 6 show more red areas, corresponding with an SST increase offshore, while areas around the coastline remain white or blue, corresponding to decreases in SST compared to the 1982-2012 baseline.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The 1951-1981 climatological mean coincides with the coldest year in the 1982-2021 dataset, apart from spring (AMJ) and autumn (OND) months when SST for the coldest year is higher than the SST of the 1951-1981 baseline period.

    “The 1951-1981 climatological mean coincides with the coldest year (as depicted by the solid blue line) in the 1982-2021 dataset, apart from the spring (AMJ) and autumn (OND) months when SST for the coldest year is higher than the SST of the 1951-1981 baseline period.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    Across all locations, RMSE values between satellite-derived SST and mooring buoy observations ranged from approximately 0.333 to 0.439 °C.

    “Across all locations, the RMSE values ranged from approximately 0.333 to 0.439 • C.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    The offshore regions adjacent to these areas show much higher positive anomalies and thus higher rates of SST increase.

    “The offshore regions adjacent to these areas show much higher positive anomalies and thus higher rates of SST increase.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    This difference for 2017 becomes particularly pronounced during the spring and autumn months when the mean SST is 18.14 °C and 19.50 °C, respectively.

    “This difference becomes particularly pronounced during the spring and autumn months when the mean SST is 18.14 • C and 19.50 • C, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The coldest year on record (1986) had a mean SST of 17.92 °C, with a stark contrast between spring (16.93 °C) and autumn (18.77 °C).

    “Examining the year with the coldest SST on record (1986, with a mean of SST of 17.92 • C) we also see a stark contrast between spring and autumn, with a mean SST of 16.93 • C during spring and 18.77 • C during autumn.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The anomaly maps reveal much variability in terms of the rates of SST change and where SST is increasing or decreasing.

    “The anomaly maps reveal much variability in terms of the rates of SST change and where SST is increasing or decreasing.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The years 2013 and 2018 are exceptions to the trend of more red areas, each showing a decrease or no significant change in SST.

    “The years 2013 and 2018 are exceptions to this trend, and each of these anomaly maps show a decrease or no significant change in SST.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Gran Canaria is an outlier where the average difference between satellite and buoy data is the largest in magnitude, with a BIAS value of -0.200 °C.

    “The only outlier here is Gran Canaria, where the average difference between the satellite data and buoy data is the largest in magnitude with a BIAS value of -0.200 • C.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The yearly SST values are markedly higher than the 1951-1981 baseline but vary between the 1982-2012 and 1991-2020 baselines.

    “The yearly SST values are markedly higher than the 1951-1981 baseline but vary between the 1982-2012 and 1991-2020 baselines.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The year with the maximum SST from the 1982-2021 period is 2017 and the minimum SST is 1986.

    “The year with the maximum SST from the 1982-2021 period (2017) is shown in orange and minimum SST (1986) is shown in blue.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The anomaly time series for the offshore regions show a more consistent increase in SST for each year and each baseline, whereas the nearshore regions show more variability on a year-to-year basis but less variability between the 30-year climatological baselines periods.

    “The anomaly time series for the offshore regions show a more consistent increase in SST for each year and each baseline, whereas the nearshore regions show more variability on a year-to-year basis but less variability between the 30-year climatological baselines periods.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The rate of SST change decelerates for the nearshore regions when comparing the latter two baseline periods but does not yet begin to decrease, as evident in the anomaly maps in Figure 6.

    “The rate of SST change decelerates for the nearshore regions when comparing the latter two baseline periods but does not yet begin to decrease, as evident in the anomaly maps in Figure 6.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The 1991-2020 baseline continues to increase, but at a much slower rate with an increase of 0.1 °C from the 1982-2012 baseline to the 1991-2020 baseline.

    “The 1991-2020 baseline continues to increase, but at a much slower rate with an increase of 0.1 °C from the 1982-2012 baseline to the 1991-2020 baseline.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The difference in mean SST between the 1951-1981 baseline and the 1982-2012 baseline for the Canary offshore region is 0.54 °C, while for the corresponding nearshore region it is 0.17 °C.

    “the differences in mean SST between the 1951-1981 baseline period and the 1982-2012 baseline period for the Canary offshore region is 0.54 °C, while for the corresponding nearshore region it is 0.17 °C.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    SST in the CCUS increased when comparing the two baseline periods and has been rising since the baseline period of 1982-2012.

    “In regional terms, SST in the CCUS is shown to increase when comparing the two baseline periods and has been rising since the baseline period of 1982-2012.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The 1991-2020 baseline continues to increase but at a lower rate, with a difference of 0.09 °C compared to the 1982-2012 baseline.

    “The 1991-2020 baseline continues to increase but at a lower rate, with a difference of 0.09 °C compared to the 1982-2012 baseline.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    The climatological assessment reveals a non-uniform increase in SST, which is higher in offshore waters compared to nearshore waters where upwelling is more influential.

    “This climatological assessment, comparing current SST trends with a standardized reference period , reveals a non-uniform increase in SST, which is higher in offshore waters compared to nearshore waters where upwelling is more influential.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    The rates of SST vary both spatially and seasonally.

    “The rates of SST vary both spatially and seasonally.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In the offshore region of South Iberia, the year with the lowest SST (1991) has significantly higher SST values during the summer months but considerably lower SST values during the spring and winter months.

    “in the offshore region the year with the lowest SST highlighted in blue (1991) has significantly higher SST values during the summer months but considerably lower SST values during the spring and winter months.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Monthly mean time series results corroborate that offshore regions all show consistent increases in SST, whereas nearshore regions show lower SST values and much more variability between the years.

    “The results corroborate the findings above, with offshore regions all showing consistent increases in SST, whereas the nearshore regions show lower SST values and much more variability between the years.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The satellite SST product was validated at IFREMER with drifting buoy measurements as recommended by the GHRSST group for SST validation (STVAL).

    “Highresolution remotely sensed SST data (0.05 • ) from the ODYSSEA Level 4 Sea Surface Temperature Reprocessed dataset were validated with in situ measurements and employed to establish a regional climatological baseline for 1982-2012.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [36] (2023, March 03). European North West Shelf/Iberia Biscay Irish Seas - High Resolution L4 Sea Surface Temperature Reprocessed. E.U. Copernicus Marine Service Information (CMEMS). Marine Data Store (MDS). Available online: https://data.marine.copernicus.eu/product/SST_ATL_SST_L4_REP_OBSERVATIONS_010_026/description.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The WMO advises maintaining the 1951-1981 period as a constant and standardized reference period for computing and monitoring global climate anomalies.

    “Nonetheless, to enable historical comparisons and to monitor climate change, the WMO advises maintaining the utilization of the 1951-1981 period as a constant and standardized reference period for computing and monitoring global climate anomalies.”
    • Also stated in: § 1. Introduction · plain
      “while retaining the 1951-1981 dataset [26] as the historical base period for supporting long-term climate change assessments.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [26] Huang, B., Thorne, P.W., Banzon, V.F., Boyer, T., Chepurin, G., Lawrimore, J.H., Menne, M.J., Smith, T.M., Vose, R.S., and Zhang, H.-M. (2023, December 12). NOAA Extended Reconstructed Sea Surface Temperature (ERSST), Version 5. NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information, Available online: https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/psd/.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The differences between the satellite product and in situ drifting buoy observations had a mean of -0.06 K and a standard deviation of 0.46 K.

    “The mean and standard deviation were then averaged, resulting in a mean value of -0.06 K and standard deviation of 0.46 K [36].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [36] (2023, March 03). European North West Shelf/Iberia Biscay Irish Seas - High Resolution L4 Sea Surface Temperature Reprocessed. E.U. Copernicus Marine Service Information (CMEMS). Marine Data Store (MDS). Available online: https://data.marine.copernicus.eu/product/SST_ATL_SST_L4_REP_OBSERVATIONS_010_026/description.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The RMSE values indicate a relatively low level of error, suggesting a favorable alignment between the datasets.

    “These values indicate a relatively low level of error, suggesting a favorable alignment between the datasets.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    The satellite SST dataset was further assessed against in situ data from four mooring buoy stations distributed along the study area.

    “To assess the satellite SST dataset, data from four mooring buoy stations, distributed along the study area, were used to validate the satellite product with in situ observations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The SST product has a spatial resolution of 0.05° (5 km) and cannot detect some smaller features in the water circulation.

    “The SST product has a spatial resolution of 0.05 • (5 km), and so it cannot detect some of the smaller features in the water circulation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    This reveals how climate change has impacted SST and how the SST baselines have increased dramatically after the 1951-1981 climatological period.

    “This reveals how climate change has impacted SST and how the SST baselines have increased dramatically after the 1951-1981 climatological period.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    MSS is a measure proposed by Willmott [39] that factors in both mean and variance differences and furnishes a comprehensive assessment of the agreement between the two datasets.

    “MSS, a measure proposed by Willmott [39] that factors in both mean and variance differences, furnishes a comprehensive assessment of the agreement between the two datasets.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Willmott [39] Willmott, 1981, On the validation of models, Phys. Geogr. source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    The period of analysis spanned from 2018 to the end of 2020 due to minimal data gaps observed during this period at each mooring buoy station.

    “The period of this analysis spanned from 2018 to the end of 2020 due to the minimal data gaps observed during this period at each mooring buoy station.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The cooling trend in the nearshore regions is evident when looking at SST in the short term after the 1982-2012 baseline, but is not yet evident when evaluating SST in the long term.

    “Thus, the cooling trend in the nearshore regions is evident when looking at SST in the short term after the 1982-2012 baseline, but is not yet evident when evaluating SST in the long term.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
38 of 38

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There is a gap in the literature comparing recent SST changes, specifically off the coast of Iberia, and comparing them to a baseline.

    “Furthermore, there is a gap in the literature comparing recent SST changes, specifically off the coast of Iberia, and comparing them to a baseline.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The CCUS region has not been extensively studied with regard to SST trends.

    “The CCUS region has not been extensively studied with regard to SST trends.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Previous studies that have examined SST trends in the CCUS have mostly relied on remotely sensed SST data with a low spatial resolution.

    “Previous studies that have examined these trends have mostly relied on remotely sensed SST data with a low spatial resolution.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The Azores current exerts its presence below 42°N latitude.

    “below the 42 • N latitude where the Azores current exerts its presence.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Mooring buoy observations represent accurate in situ SST measurements suitable as a reference for validating satellite-derived SST.

    “compared with observations from the mooring buoys referred to in the last section”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The 1982-2012 period is a suitable baseline for climatological normal SST in the study area.

    “the baseline period of 1982-2012”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The 1951-1981 period is a suitable historical baseline for comparison.

    “the preceding historical baseline period from 1951 to 1981”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Changes in SST and upwelling patterns directly affect the quantity and distribution of marine species, impacting local fisheries and the socio-economic fabric of coastal communities.

    “Changes in SST and upwelling patterns directly affect the quantity and distribution of marine species, impacting local fisheries and the socio-economic fabric of coastal communities.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    SST changes serve as indicators of broader ecological shifts, influencing the breeding, spawning, and migration patterns of marine species and thus altering the ecological balance of the region.

    “SST changes serve as indicators of broader ecological shifts, influencing the breeding, spawning, and migration patterns of marine species and thus altering the ecological balance of the region.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The CCUS plays a crucial role in sustaining high marine productivity and biodiversity.

    “The CCUS, characterized by significant upwelling events off the west coast of the Iberian Peninsula and along the northwest coast of Africa, plays a crucial role in sustaining high marine productivity and biodiversity.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The CCUS is sensitive to alterations induced by climate change, particularly to changes in SST.

    “This system, vital for an array of marine species including economically important fish stocks, is sensitive to alterations induced by climate change, particularly to changes in SST.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The ODYSSEA Level 4 Sea Surface Temperature Reprocessed dataset is high quality and mitigates common issues associated with satellite data.

    “The ODYSSEA Level 4 Sea Surface Temperature Reprocessed dataset, known for its high resolution and quality, underpins our analysis, mitigating common issues associated with satellite data.”
12 of 12

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Third baseline is dated both 1990-2020 and 1991-2020

    Minor

    The time-series description names a 1990-2020 baseline, whereas the subsequent results and figure identify it as 1991-2020. These are different reference periods.

  • Figure 10 gives a different endpoint for the historical baseline

    Minor

    The Figure 10 caption calls the subtracted reference the 1951-1982 baseline, but the same caption identifies the yearly-anomaly reference as 1951-1981.

  • Figure 11 uses 2021 although the satellite dataset ends in 2020

    Minor

    The figure caption describes monthly means for a 1982-2021 dataset, but the specified satellite product provides data only through 2020.

3 of 3

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. Arístegui, J., Álvarez-Salgado, X.A., Barton, E.D., Figueiras, F.G., Hernández-León, S., Roy, C., and Santos, A.M.P. (2023, March 03). Chapter 23: Oceanography and Fisheries of the Canary Current/Iberian Region of the Eastern North Atlantic (18a,E); 2004; Volume 14. Available online: https://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/divers12-12/010038152.pdf.

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Authors
Mills, L., Janeiro, J., & Martins, F.
Affiliations
  • University of Algarve (PT)
  • Laboratorio Colaborativo Sustainable and Smart Aquaculture (PT)
Corresponding author
Mills, Lara
ORCID
Venue
Remote Sensing
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2024-01-28
Volume
16
Issue
3
Pages
504
ISSN
2072-4292 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/rs16030504
OpenAlex
W4391351240
Cited by
5
References
35
Citations by year
2026: 1 · 2025: 4
FWCI
1.09
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Remote Sensing (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
  • Portuguese Foundation of Science and Technology (FCT) (UID/00350/2020 CIMA, LA/P/0069/2020, 101000825, 101095253)
  • ARNET (UID/00350/2020 CIMA, LA/P/0069/2020, 101000825, 101095253)
  • EU-H2020 NAUTILOS (UID/00350/2020 CIMA, LA/P/0069/2020, 101000825, 101095253)
  • EU-HEUROPE THETIDA (UID/00350/2020 CIMA, LA/P/0069/2020, 101000825, 101095253)
  • Programa Operacional Regional do Algarve (CRESC Algarve 2020) (UID/00350/2020 CIMA, LA/P/0069/2020, 101000825, 101095253)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Oceanography › Oceanographic and Atmospheric Processes
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Climate variability and models
  • Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Earth-Surface Processes › Coastal and Marine Dynamics
Keywords
sea surface temperature, SST climatology, sea surface temperature anomalies, coastal upwelling, global warming, northwest Iberian Peninsula, Maghreb

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-16.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-16.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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