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Resilience definitions, theory, and challenges: interdisciplinary perspectives
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In this paper, inspired by the plenary panel at the 2013 meeting of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, Dr. Steven Southwick (chair) and multidisciplinary panelists Drs. George Bonanno, Ann Masten, Catherine Panter-Brick, and Rachel Yehuda tackle some of the most pressing current questions in the field of resilience research including: (1) how do we define resilience, (2) what are the most important determinants of resilience, (3) how are new technologies informing the science of resilience, and (4) what are the most effective ways to enhance resilience? These multidisciplinary experts provide insight into these difficult questions, and although each of the panelists had a slightly different definition of resilience, most of the proposed definitions included a concept of healthy, adaptive, or integrated positive functioning over the passage of time in the aftermath of adversity. The panelists agreed that resilience is a complex construct and it may be defined differently in the context of individuals, families, organizations, societies, and cultures. With regard to the determinants of resilience, there was a consensus that the empirical study of this construct needs to be approached from a multiple level of analysis perspective that includes genetic, epigenetic, developmental, demographic, cultural, economic, and social variables. The empirical study of determinates of resilience will inform efforts made at fostering resilience, with the recognition that resilience may be enhanced on numerous levels (e.g., individual, family, community, culture).
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“Empirical studies have shown that greater resilience serves as a protective mechanism against trauma-related disorders (19).”
From Coping strategies and psychological outcomes following the 2023 Kahramanmaraş earthquakes: a systematic review with meta-analytic synthesis (2026) · cites this paper as [19]
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“Such differences in measurement and conceptualization can generate variation in observed effect sizes even when the underlying constructs are theoretically related (19).”
From Coping strategies and psychological outcomes following the 2023 Kahramanmaraş earthquakes: a systematic review with meta-analytic synthesis (2026) · cites this paper as [19]
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“Resilience can be context-dependent, such that its definition varies in the context of individuals, families, organizations, societies, and cultures (Southwick et al., 2014).”
From Resilience following severe early life neglect: A review of longitudinal evidence from the Bucharest Early Intervention Project (2026) · cites this paper as Southwick et al., 2014
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“Resilience has been identified as an important factor that enables individuals adapt to and recover from emotionally, physically, and psychologically distressing situations and trauma [17,20].”
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“This approach emphasizes resilience as a process rather than a static state, aligning with the perspective of positive psychology and the understanding that resilience can evolve over time in response to adversity (Southwick et al., 2014).”
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“Self-compassion is linked to resilience, which refers to being less defeated by stress and challenges in one’s life but persisting through these occasions (Kern & Friedman, 2010; Southwick et al., 2014).”
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“…from stress (Smith et al., 2008; Tugade & Fredrickson, 2004), it describes a dynamic process involving positive adaptation in the context of significant adversity (Luthar et al., 2000), a component of our individual vulnerability and our capacity to cope with risk factors (Southwick et al., 2014).”
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“Therefore, de fi ning different types of resilience depending on context might be the better way forward (Southwick et al., 2014).”
Family resilience of families with parental cancer and minor children: a qualitative analysis
Heuser, C., Schneider, J. N., Heier, L., Ernstmann, N., Nakata, H., Petermann‐Meyer, A., Bremen, R., Karger, A., Icks, A., Brümmendorf, T. H., et al. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1251049 · Cited by 13
“…i.e., finding a way to adapt positively to the new situation created by the cancer disease (Luthar et al., 2000), and being able to move consciously forward as a family in this situation (Southwick et al., 2014), was connected to social and economic resources, flexibility, and open communication.”
BackgroundZeidner, M., & Kampler, S. (2019) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2019.109719 · Cited by 14
Resiliency and Allostatic Load among Veterans at Risk for Adverse Prostate Cancer Outcomes
Halbert, C. H., Jefferson, M. S., Ambrose, L., Caulder, S., & Savage, S. J. (2020) · Ethnicity & Disease · doi:10.18865/ed.30.s1.177 · Cited by 14
Validación de la escala de resiliencia en Educación Física
Trigueros, R., Aguilar-Parra, J. M., Gómez, N. N., Bermejo, R., & García, C. F. (2020) · Sportis Scientific Journal of School Sport Physical Education and Psychomotricity · doi:10.17979/sportis.2020.6.2.5245 · Cited by 13
Chakradhar, K., Arumugham, P., & Venkataraman, M. (2022) · Social Work Education · doi:10.1080/02615479.2022.2072482 · Cited by 13
“…academic and practice demands, respectively; and individual and environmental factors that point to resilience capacity (Thomas & Beecher, 2018) drive the need to enhance resilience in students training for a social work career (O’Neill et al., 2019; Schwanzer et al., 2021; Southwick et al., 2014).”
BackgroundBekešienė, S., Kanapeckaitė, R., Smaliukienė, R., Navickienė, O., Meidutė‐Kavaliauskienė, I., & Vaičaitienė, R. (2022) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su141912048 · Cited by 19
Shilton, T., Mancini, A. D., Perlstein, S., DiDomenico, G. E., Visoki, E., Greenberg, D. M., Brown, L. A., Gur, R. C., Gur, R. E., Waller, R. E., et al. (2023) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.3233 · Cited by 12
Cutuli, J. J., & Herbers, J. E. (2018) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13041 · Cited by 14
Resilience in African American Women at Risk for Cardiovascular Disease: an Exploratory Study
Saban, K. L., Tell, D., & Janusek, L. W. (2018) · Journal of Urban Health · doi:10.1007/s11524-018-00334-0 · Cited by 14
Fagbemi, T., Dosumu, O., Adigun, R., Nakpodia, F., & Sakariyahu, R. (2025) · Financial Accountability & Management · doi:10.1111/faam.12408 · Cited by 13
Moisoglou, I., Katsiroumpa, A., Konstantakopoulou, O., Papathanasiou, I. V., Prasini, I., Rekleiti, M., & Galanis, P. (2025) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare13162064 · Cited by 12
“Alongside biological components, numerous environmental factors, especially resources, also influence resilience [11].”
A Multi-dimensional Matrix for Better Defining and Conceptualizing Resilience
Padan, C., & Gal, R. (2020) · Connections The Quarterly Journal · doi:10.11610/connections.19.3.02 · Cited by 12
Hsieh, S., Yao, Z., & Yang, M. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18031123 · Cited by 13
Rohner, S. L., Castillo, A. N. S., Carr, A., & Thoma, M. V. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.966956 · Cited by 16
“Such research emphasizes a strengths- and competence-based approach to overcoming adversity with a focus on positive adaptation rather than psychopathology (Southwick et al., 2014).”
BackgroundGómez, G., & Rivas, M. Y. (2022) · Reading Psychology · doi:10.1080/02702711.2022.2106333 · Cited by 16
“Risk and protective factors participate in the development of a resilient reaction and can be related to the individual, familial, and social domains (Southwick et al., 2014).”
BackgroundWhy collective resilience in journalism matters: A call to action in global media development
Relly, J. E., & Waisbord, S. (2022) · Journal of Applied Journalism & Media Studies · doi:10.1386/ajms_00089_1 · Cited by 12
Atak, N. T., & Meriç, M. (2020) · Cyprus Journal of Medical Sciences · doi:10.4274/cjms.2020.2343 · Cited by 20
The efficacy of art therapy on hope and resilience in youth within a secure care centre
Collins, B., Darewych, O. H., & Chiacchia, D. J. (2023) · International Journal of Art Therapy · doi:10.1080/17454832.2022.2145322 · Cited by 12
Lu, J., Yu, Y., Wang, B., Zhang, Y., Ji, H., Xu, C., Sun, M., Daun, Y., Pan, Y., Chen, Y., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1090451 · Cited by 12
Thabrew, H., Biro, R., & Kumar, H. (2023) · School Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s12310-023-09577-y · Cited by 14
“, 2005), resilience (Southwick et al., 2014), social and emotional learning (SEL) (Payton et al.”
BackgroundWhat We Talk About When We Talk About Coping
Bamdad, M. C., Vitous, C. A., Rivard, S. J., Anderson, M. S., Lussiez, A. D., Roo, A. C. D., Englesbe, M. J., & Suwanabol, P. A. (2023) · Annals of Surgery · doi:10.1097/sla.0000000000005854 · Cited by 12
The Context of Caregiving in Heart Failure
Saylor, M. A., DeGroot, L. G., Pavlovic, N., McIlvennan, C. K., Taylor, J. L. W., Gilotra, N. A., Gallo, J. J., Davidson, P. M., Wolff, J. L., & Szanton, S. L. (2023) · The Journal of Cardiovascular Nursing · doi:10.1097/jcn.0000000000000987 · Cited by 12
Development and initial validation of the Mount Sinai Resilience Scale.
DePierro, J. M., Marin, D. B., Sharma, V., Katz, C. L., Pietrzak, R. H., Feder, A., Murrough, J. W., Starkweather, S., Marx, B. P., Southwick, S. M., et al. (2023) · Psychological Trauma Theory Research Practice and Policy · doi:10.1037/tra0001590 · Cited by 14
Self-citationTahara, T. (2023) · Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies · doi:10.29333/ejecs/1863 · Cited by 12
“Cultural Resilience Theory posits that communities, particularly those belonging to indigenous or minority groups, have the capacity to withstand external pressures and adapt to change while preserving their core cultural and religious values (Southwick et al., 2014).”
BackgroundKont, J., Elving, W. J. L., Broersma, M., & Bozdağ, Ç. (2024) · Communications · doi:10.1515/commun-2023-0078 · Cited by 17
“The fact that the state of resilience within a system or person is prone to change over contexts and time further exemplifies this (Panter-Brick, 2014; Southwick et al., 2014).”
BackgroundCognitive flexibility and resilience measured through a residual approach
Notebaert, L., Clarke, P., Meeten, F., Todd, J., & Bockstaele, B. V. (2024) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2024.2353654 · Cited by 20
“High resilience is associated with a range of positive outcomes, including enhanced physical health, and greater life satisfaction (Bonanno, 2004; Kong et al., 2015; Southwick et al., 2014).”
Liu, W., & Hu, L. (2024) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2024.2349883 · Cited by 15
“This psychological trait aids individuals in better coping with various di ffi culties and pressures in life, enhancing overall quality of life, promoting mental and physical well-being, and fostering success in diverse domains (Southwick et al., 2014).”
Bettergarcia, J. N., Crone, C., Herry, E., & Ali, B. (2024) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/josi.12639 · Cited by 15
Metadata
- Authors
- Southwick, S. M., Bonanno, G. A., Masten, A. S., Panter-Brick, C., & Yehuda, R.
- Affiliations
- Yale University (US)
- Columbia University (US)
- University of Minnesota (US)
- Department of Anthropology & Jackson Institute, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
- James J. Peters VA Medical Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- Southwick, Steven M.
- Venue
- European Journal of Psychotraumatology
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2014-10-01
- Volume
- 5
- Issue
- 1
- ISSN
- 2000-8066 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4185134
- OpenAlex
- W2000653311
- Cited by
- 2,968
- References
- 80
- Citations by year
- 2026: 464 · 2025: 402 · 2024: 370 · 2023: 342 · 2022: 357 · 2021: 336 · 2020: 236 · 2019: 183 · 2018: 126 · 2017: 79 · 2016: 50 · 2015: 20 · 2014: 1
- FWCI
- 59.00
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- European Journal of Psychotraumatology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Figshare (cc-by)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Resilience and Mental Health
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Optimism, Hope, and Well-being
- Keywords
- resilience, resilience definitions, determinants of resilience, multiple levels of analysis, epigenetics, genetic factors, developmental factors, cultural factors, economic factors, social factors, trauma, adversity, positive functioning, family resilience, community resilience, cultural resilience
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