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Resilience definitions, theory, and challenges: interdisciplinary perspectives
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In this paper, inspired by the plenary panel at the 2013 meeting of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, Dr. Steven Southwick (chair) and multidisciplinary panelists Drs. George Bonanno, Ann Masten, Catherine Panter-Brick, and Rachel Yehuda tackle some of the most pressing current questions in the field of resilience research including: (1) how do we define resilience, (2) what are the most important determinants of resilience, (3) how are new technologies informing the science of resilience, and (4) what are the most effective ways to enhance resilience? These multidisciplinary experts provide insight into these difficult questions, and although each of the panelists had a slightly different definition of resilience, most of the proposed definitions included a concept of healthy, adaptive, or integrated positive functioning over the passage of time in the aftermath of adversity. The panelists agreed that resilience is a complex construct and it may be defined differently in the context of individuals, families, organizations, societies, and cultures. With regard to the determinants of resilience, there was a consensus that the empirical study of this construct needs to be approached from a multiple level of analysis perspective that includes genetic, epigenetic, developmental, demographic, cultural, economic, and social variables. The empirical study of determinates of resilience will inform efforts made at fostering resilience, with the recognition that resilience may be enhanced on numerous levels (e.g., individual, family, community, culture).
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“Empirical studies have shown that greater resilience serves as a protective mechanism against trauma-related disorders (19).”
From Coping strategies and psychological outcomes following the 2023 Kahramanmaraş earthquakes: a systematic review with meta-analytic synthesis (2026) · cites this paper as [19]
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“Such differences in measurement and conceptualization can generate variation in observed effect sizes even when the underlying constructs are theoretically related (19).”
From Coping strategies and psychological outcomes following the 2023 Kahramanmaraş earthquakes: a systematic review with meta-analytic synthesis (2026) · cites this paper as [19]
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“Resilience can be context-dependent, such that its definition varies in the context of individuals, families, organizations, societies, and cultures (Southwick et al., 2014).”
From Resilience following severe early life neglect: A review of longitudinal evidence from the Bucharest Early Intervention Project (2026) · cites this paper as Southwick et al., 2014
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“Resilience has been identified as an important factor that enables individuals adapt to and recover from emotionally, physically, and psychologically distressing situations and trauma [17,20].”
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“Resilience is a well-recognized and muti-faceted personality factor that encapsulates the concept of positive, healthy, and adaptive functioning over time after the experience of an adverse event (Southwick et al., 2014).”
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Gelaw, Y. M., Kashtan, H., & Adini, B. B. (2023) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2023.1118450 · Cited by 22
“(18) also defined resilience as “the capacity of a dynamic system to withstand or recover from significant disturbances.”
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“Leading conceptual models build on this definition by portraying resilience as a capacity , a process , and an outcome (Brown et al., 2023a; Choi et al., 2019; Denckla et al., 2020; Masten, 2001; Masten and Tellegen, 2012; Southwick et al., 2014).”
Resilience after severe critical illness: a prospective, multicentre, observational study (RESIREA)
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“Moreover, researchers have also emphasized the importance of external elements, including social support, and socio-economic and environmental factors (Bonanno, 2004; Rutter, 1985; Southwick et al., 2014; Windle, 2011).”
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“By departing from a deficit-based orientation and increasingly focusing on models considering strengths and competencies, more attention is paid to developing resilience (Southwick et al. 2014).”
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“Experts agree that resilience is defined differently in the context of individuals, families, organisations, societies and cultures (Southwick et al., 2014).”
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“Besides being able to conform to challenging conditions, resilience may be comprehended as the strength to adjust to the modifications in conditions (Southwick et al., 2014).”
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“This phenomenon is known as ‘resilience’ and can be defined as the ability of a system to anticipate and recover from shocks and crises, as well as the capacity to transform and reach a new ‘normal’ (Southwick et al., 2014).”
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“The main narrative in current research conceptualizes resilience as a rather stable protective factor against childhood adversity and poor mental health outcomes (Southwick, Bonanno, Masten, Panter-Brick, & Yehuda, 2014).”
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“Notwithstanding the difference in the key concepts, they all include a stable trajectory and outcome of individual and communal healthy functioning after a highly adverse event (Southwick et al., 2014).”
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“This view is consistent with the seminal works of Galatzer-Levy et al. (2018), Bonanno et al. (2015), and Southwick et al. (2014) who view resilience as a temporal trajectory characterised by a relatively short-lived period of disequilibrium and a long-term period of positive adjustment and…”
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“Resiliencedthe process of harnessing resources to sustain well-being in the face of stressdis evidenced by both the acknowledgment of stressors and changes and by the identification of existing values and new direction.(11,12) Furthermore, resilience is not linear.”
Stress, Resilience, and Coping
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“The development of psychological resilience has been documented for numerous adverse life events and not necessarily only for severe RTAs (Chmitorz et al., 2018; Herrman et al., 2011; Sisto et al., 2019; Southwick et al., 2014; Wu et al., 2013).”
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“…the nature of resilience (e.g., state, trait, process or outcomes, see for instance Kuldas & Foody, 2021) have led to different measures and assessment tools (Southwick et al., 2014; Windle et al., 2011) as well as connected concepts, such as vicarious resilience (Hernandez-Wolfe et al., 2015).”
BackgroundMeta-ethnography of experiences of early discharge, with a focus on paediatric febrile neutropenia
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Lahai, J. I., & Koomson, I. (2020) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780367853846 · Cited by 15
Tsigkaropoulou, E., Michopoulos, I., Porichi, E., Dafnas, K., Serretti, A., & Ferentinos, P. (2024) · International Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1097/yic.0000000000000483 · Cited by 15
“Resilience can also be considered as a predictor of the therapeutic outcome and of the potential for recovery (Luthar et al. , 2000; Southwick et al. , 2014).”
BackgroundHammood, Y. M., Ismail, S. M., Prasad, K., Khasawneh, M. A. S., & Naeim, M. (2025) · Asian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2025.104485 · Cited by 22
Social support interventions for caregivers of older adults with dementia: a scoping review
Yuan, S., Zhang, F., Pu, L., Lv, J., Xie, X., Lin, L., Qiu, M., Huang, L., Jiang, W., Zhu, J., et al. (2025) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2024-095815 · Cited by 15
“19 20 The substantial stress associated with caregiving responsibilities can exacerbate negative emotions such as anxiety and depression, adversely impacting both mental and physical health, 22 which may, in turn, diminish the quality of care provided.”
Resilience in context: a synthesis of theories and practices for educational psychologists
Pearson, E., Sharp, L., & Hampton, L. (2025) · Educational Psychology in Practice · doi:10.1080/02667363.2025.2518990 · Cited by 27
“Resilience is defined and understood in various ways across the literature, but a recurring theme is the ability to recover or “bounce back” from adversity (Southwick et al., 2014, p. 2).”
InfluentialEffects of Dynamic Resilience on the Reactivity of Vagally Mediated Heart Rate Variability
Crameri, L., Hettiarachchi, I. T., & Hanoun, S. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.579210 · Cited by 17
“While theoretically divisive, resilience is often conceived as a stable trait that promotes one’s ability to adapt positively in the face of adversity (Rutter, 2006; Cicchetti, 2010; Southwick et al., 2014; Vella and Pai, 2019).”
BackgroundVanaken, L., Smeets, T., Bijttebier, P., & Hermans, D. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.558044 · Cited by 17
“As briefly touched upon earlier, the reason why narratives are investigated in terms of their narrative structure is because coherence seems to reflect the individual’s abilities to cope with the event and hence can indicate trauma resilience (Horowitz, 1976; Fivush and Baker-Ward, 2005; Southwick et al., 2014; Vander…”
BackgroundThe Role of Servant Leadership and Resilience in Predicting Work Engagement
Wiroko, E. P. (2021) · Journal of Resilient Economies · doi:10.25120/jre.1.1.2021.3821 · Cited by 19
Resiliensi di Masa Pandemi: Peran Efikasi Diri dan Persepsi Ancaman Covid-19
Sulastri, T., & Jufri, M. (2021) · Jurnal Penelitian Psikologi · doi:10.29080/jpp.v12i1.531 · Cited by 15
Campbell-Sills, L., Kautz, J. D., Choi, K. W., Naifeh, J. A., Aliaga, P. A., Jain, S., Sun, X., Kessler, R. C., Stein, M. B., Ursano, R. J., et al. (2021) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291721003779 · Cited by 15
Matsumoto, N., Sugimoto, T., Kuroda, Y., Uchida, K., Kishino, Y., Arai, H., & Sakurai, T. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.898990 · Cited by 18
Bartley, E. J., Makhoul, M., Palit, S., Robinson, M. E., & Fillingim, R. B. (2022) · Pain Medicine · doi:10.1093/pm/pnac156 · Cited by 16
Kolopaking, L. M., Wahyono, E. B., Irmayani, N. R., Habibullah, H., & Erwinsyah, R. G. (2022) · International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning · doi:10.18280/ijsdp.170713 · Cited by 15
Validation of the Indonesian resilience evaluation scale in an undergraduate student population
Primasari, I., Hoeboer, C. M., Bakker, A., & Olff, M. (2022) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-022-14769-3 · Cited by 28
“However, some concerns about the concept of (psychological) resilience have been raised, such as a lack of agreement on the definition and the significant diversity in its operationalization [9, 10].”
BackgroundPsychology in orthopedics and traumatology: an instructional review
Gosens, T., & Oudsten, B. L. D. (2023) · EFORT Open Reviews · doi:10.1530/eor-23-0038 · Cited by 16
“Resilience can be viewed as a trait, process, or outcome (46).”
BackgroundResilience in the context of dementia family caregiver mental health: A concept analysis
Poe, A. A., Vance, D. E., Patrician, P. A., Dick, T., & Puga, F. (2023) · Archives of Psychiatric Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.apnu.2023.06.015 · Cited by 17
Self-concept and job performance: the mediating role of resilience
Varshney, D., & Varshney, N. K. (2023) · International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management · doi:10.1108/ijppm-10-2022-0548 · Cited by 26
Yan, X., Wang, X., Xu, C., Xu, Y., Liu, P., Peng, L., & Li, M. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jadr.2023.100666 · Cited by 17
Karabey, T. (2023) · Palliative & Supportive Care · doi:10.1017/s1478951523001645 · Cited by 15
Contreras, A., Butter, S., Granziol, U., Panzeri, A., Peinado, V., Trucharte, A., Zavlis, O., Valiente, C., Vázquez, C., Murphy, J., et al. (2023) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.22988 · Cited by 16
“Although there is no single accepted definition of resilience, most proposals agree on the presence of a process of adaptation and recovery from adversity (see Bonanno et al., 2011, and Southwick et al., 2014, 2015, for a detailed review).”
BackgroundChild maltreatment and resilience in adulthood: a protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis
Fares‐Otero, N. E., Jiaqing, O., Spies, G., Womersley, J. S., González, C., Ayas, G., Mossie, T. B., Carranza-Neira, J., Lorenzo, J. M. E., Vieta, E., et al. (2023) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008066.2023.2282826 · Cited by 17
“Indeed, resilience is the capacity of an individual to adapt successfully to highly adverse events and to maintain healthy functioning by harnessing resources (Southwick et al., 2014).”
BackgroundInfluentialBitar, Z., Fekih‐Romdhane, F., Mahfoud, D., Fawaz, M. A., Hallit, S. R., & Obeïd, S. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0298043 · Cited by 17
“The increased prevalence of traumatic and tragic events, such as life changes, illness, pandemics, natural disasters, or wars, has generated significant interest from the fields of neuroscience, mental health, and psychology regarding their impact on mental well-being [1].”
BackgroundWebb, E. K., Stevens, J. S., Ely, T. D., Lebois, L. A. M., van Rooij, S. J. H., Bruce, S. E., House, S. L., Beaudoin, F. L., An, X., Neylan, T. C., et al. (2024) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2024.2148 · Cited by 16
Özbay, A., & Bülbül, A. (2024) · Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcop.23150 · Cited by 19
Meacham, H., Holland, P. J., Pariona‐Cabrera, P. D., Kang, H., Tham, T. L., Bartram, T., & Cavanagh, J. M. (2024) · Personnel Review · doi:10.1108/pr-08-2023-0685 · Cited by 16
Metadata
- Authors
- Southwick, S. M., Bonanno, G. A., Masten, A. S., Panter-Brick, C., & Yehuda, R.
- Affiliations
- Yale University (US)
- Columbia University (US)
- University of Minnesota (US)
- Department of Anthropology & Jackson Institute, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
- James J. Peters VA Medical Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- Southwick, Steven M.
- Venue
- European Journal of Psychotraumatology
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2014-10-01
- Volume
- 5
- Issue
- 1
- ISSN
- 2000-8066 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4185134
- OpenAlex
- W2000653311
- Cited by
- 2,968
- References
- 80
- Citations by year
- 2026: 464 · 2025: 402 · 2024: 370 · 2023: 342 · 2022: 357 · 2021: 336 · 2020: 236 · 2019: 183 · 2018: 126 · 2017: 79 · 2016: 50 · 2015: 20 · 2014: 1
- FWCI
- 59.00
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- European Journal of Psychotraumatology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Figshare (cc-by)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Resilience and Mental Health
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Optimism, Hope, and Well-being
- Keywords
- resilience, resilience definitions, determinants of resilience, multiple levels of analysis, epigenetics, genetic factors, developmental factors, cultural factors, economic factors, social factors, trauma, adversity, positive functioning, family resilience, community resilience, cultural resilience
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