Environmental context-dependent memory: a review and meta-analysis
Open accessAbstract
To address questions about human memory's dependence on the coincidental environmental contexts in which events occur, we review studies of incidental environmental context-dependent memory in humans and report a meta-analysis. Our theoretical approach to the issue stems from Glenberg's (1997) contention that introspective thought (e.g., remembering, conceptualizing) requires cognitive resources normally used to represent the immediate environment. We propose that if tasks encourage processing of noncontextual information (i.e., introspective thought) at input and/or at test, then both learning and memory will be less dependent on the ambient environmental contexts in which those activities occur. The meta-analysis showed that across all studies, environmental context effects were reliable, and furthermore, that the use of noncontextual cues during learning (overshadowing) and at test (outshining), as well as mental reinstatement of appropriate context cues at test, all reduce the effect of environmental manipulations. We conclude that environmental context-dependent memory effects are less likely to occur under conditions in which the immediate environment is likely to be suppressed.
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Context affects performance.
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- Authors
- Smith, S. M., & Vela, E.
- Affiliations
- Texas A&M University (US)
- California State University, Chico (US)
- Corresponding author
- Smith, Steven M.
- ORCID
- Smith, Steven M.
- Venue
- Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
- Published
- 2001-06
- Volume
- 8
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 203-220
- ISSN
- 1069-9384 (ISSN-L)
- 1531-5320
- OpenAlex
- W2106029369
- Cited by
- 900
- References
- 100
- Citations by year
- 2026: 44 · 2025: 44 · 2024: 63 · 2023: 49 · 2022: 47 · 2021: 46 · 2020: 72 · 2019: 50 · 2018: 54 · 2017: 44 · 2016: 46 · 2015: 47 · 2014: 39 · 2013: 37 · 2012: 33
- FWCI
- 0.60
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Psychonomic Bulletin & Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- incidental memory, contextual interference, overshadowing, contextual cues, learning and memory
- MeSH terms
- Association Learning, Concept Formation, Humans, Mental Recall, Retention, Psychology, Social Environment, Thinking
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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