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Study strategies of college students: Are self-testing and scheduling related to achievement?
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Previous studies, such as those by Kornell and Bjork (Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14:219-224, 2007) and Karpicke, Butler, and Roediger (Memory, 17:471-479, 2009), have surveyed college students' use of various study strategies, including self-testing and rereading. These studies have documented that some students do use self-testing (but largely for monitoring memory) and rereading, but the researchers did not assess whether individual differences in strategy use were related to student achievement. Thus, we surveyed 324 undergraduates about their study habits as well as their college grade point average (GPA). Importantly, the survey included questions about self-testing, scheduling one's study, and a checklist of strategies commonly used by students or recommended by cognitive research. Use of self-testing and rereading were both positively associated with GPA. Scheduling of study time was also an important factor: Low performers were more likely to engage in late-night studying than were high performers; massing (vs. spacing) of study was associated with the use of fewer study strategies overall; and all students-but especially low performers-were driven by impending deadlines. Thus, self-testing, rereading, and scheduling of study play important roles in real-world student achievement.
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“Despite the evidence for their effectiveness for long-term learning, the uptake of desirable difficulties is still too low in students in higher education (Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012).”
From Worth the Effort: the Start and Stick to Desirable Difficulties (S2D2) Framework (2023) · cites this paper as Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012
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“They did not, however, increase their self-testing (50%) to levels equivalent to other undergraduate surveys, found to be 71% in Hartwig and Dunlosky (2012), 72% in Morehead et al. (2016), and 62% in Williams et al. (2021).”
From Moving the Needle: Evidence of an Effective Study Strategy Intervention in a Community College Biology Course (2022) · cites this paper as Hartwig and Dunlosky (2012)
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“This amount of spacing matches the 64% of students who reported spacing their studying in Rodriguez et al. (2018). It is higher than that reported in Hartwig and Dunlosky at 47% (2012) and in Morehead et al. at 48% (2016).”
From Moving the Needle: Evidence of an Effective Study Strategy Intervention in a Community College Biology Course (2022) · cites this paper as Hartwig and Dunlosky (2012)
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“Self-testing is a strategy used by many students, with Hartwig and Dunlosky reporting 71% of students (2012), and Morehead et al. reporting 72% of students (2016) saying they self-test, but this strategy is less often used by students historically excluded from STEM because of race or ethnicity (Rodriguez et al., 2018; Williams et al., 2021).”
From Moving the Needle: Evidence of an Effective Study Strategy Intervention in a Community College Biology Course (2022) · cites this paper as Hartwig and Dunlosky, 2012
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“Drawing of any type is infrequently used, with Hartwig and Dunlosky finding only 15% of students using drawing (2012) and Morehead et al. (2016) finding only 24% of students using drawing as a main study strategy (2019).”
From Moving the Needle: Evidence of an Effective Study Strategy Intervention in a Community College Biology Course (2022) · cites this paper as Hartwig and Dunlosky, 2012
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“Studies that surveyed students about their study timing found many students do use spacing (47% in Hartwig and Dunlosky, 2012; 48% in Morehead et al., 2016; 57% in Rodriguez et al., 2018), though clearly there is room for improvement.”
From Moving the Needle: Evidence of an Effective Study Strategy Intervention in a Community College Biology Course (2022) · cites this paper as Hartwig and Dunlosky, 2012
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Citations
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Self-regulated spacing in a massive open online course is related to better learning
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“Such a study behavior would allow students to avoid cramming for the exam or overload in the exam period (Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012; Susser & McCabe, 2012).”
BackgroundA critical analysis of the research evidence behind CAST’s universal design for learning guidelines
Boysen, G. A. (2024) · Policy Futures in Education · doi:10.1177/14782103241255428 · Cited by 52
“…techniques are often dif fi cult for students to discern (Bjork et al., 2013; Clark, 1982; Kirschner and Van Merri¨enboer, 2013), and students may intentionally choose ineffective learning techniques for practical reasons (Blasiman et al., 2017; Hartwig and Dunlosky, 2012; Kornell and Bjork, 2007).”
Do spacing and self-testing predict learning outcomes?
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Predicting University Students’ Exam Performance Using a Model-Based Adaptive Fact-Learning System
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“Actual study behaviour is often driven by impending deadlines (Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012; Kornell & Bjork, 2007), not by optimal planning.”
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“For example, most people describe self-testing only as a way to assess their current knowledge and not as a way to potentiate learning (Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012, EL: 5; Kornell & Bjork, 2007, EL: 5; McCabe, 2011, EL: 5; Morehead et al., 2016, EL: 5; Yan et al., 2014a, 2014b, EL: 5); thus, they are…”
BackgroundAriel, R., Hines, J. C., & Hertzog, C. K. (2014) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2014.06.003 · Cited by 28
“In fact, students typically use practice tests to assess their memory rather than as a technique to foster additional learning (Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012; Kornell & Son, 2009).”
BackgroundSurma, T., Vanhoyweghen, K., Camp, G., & Kirschner, P. A. (2018) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2018.05.007 · Cited by 39
“…intended or actual study behaviours suggest that they underuse these effective strategies and over-use ineffective strategies such as rereading and hightlighting (See e.g., Blasiman, Dunlosky, & Rawson, 2017; Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012; Kornell & Bjork, 2007; Morehead, Rhodes, & DeLozier, 2016).”
BackgroundMetacognitive study strategies in a college course and their relation to exam performance
Zepeda, C. D., & Nokes‐Malach, T. J. (2020) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-020-01106-5 · Cited by 29
Stimulating the intention to change learning strategies: The role of narratives
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“Ideally it motivates engagement, evaluates progress, provides diagnostic feedback, and can be a learning experience in its own right [31, 15, 10].”
BackgroundFlip It or Click It: Equivalent Learning of Vocabulary From Paper, Laptop, and Smartphone Flashcards
Sage, K. D., Piazzini, M., Downey, J. C., & Ewing, S. (2020) · Journal of Educational Technology Systems · doi:10.1177/0047239520943647 · Cited by 38
“This study focuses on flashcards, a common method for memorizing vocabulary (Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012).”
BackgroundMethodFlip, Slide, or Swipe? Learning Outcomes from Paper, Computer, and Tablet Flashcards
Sage, K. D., Krebs, B., & Grove, R. (2017) · Technology Knowledge and Learning · doi:10.1007/s10758-017-9345-9 · Cited by 30
“And, while self-testing generally is positively related to GPA, this relationship does not hold specifically for flashcards (Hartwig and Dunlosky 2012).”
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“Asking students if they had been instructed on the study methods they used, Kornell and Bjork (2007) and Hartwig and Dunlosky (2012) reported that 80 and 64% of students answered ‘ no ’ , respectively.”
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“…of the strategies that they use—for example, in the form of a practice test, quiz, or flashcards—the most common reason for doing so is to check their knowledge (Geller et al., 2018; Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012; Kornell & Bjork, 2007; Morehead et al., 2016; Tullis & Maddox, 2020; Yan et al., 2014).”
How do students implement collaborative testing in real-world contexts?
Wissman, K. T., & Rawson, K. A. (2015) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2014.999792 · Cited by 25
“For example, Kornell and Bjork (2007) asked students why they choose to test themselves during study; 68% of students reported using testing as a way to figure out how well they had learned the information being studied (also see Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012).”
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Cohen, M. S., Yan, V. X., Halamish, V., & Bjork, R. A. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0032425 · Cited by 25
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“In this regard, cramming is often viewed as an effective way to ensure success on exams.(10) However, the effectiveness of cramming is an illusion because the material learned is quickly forgotten.”
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Supporting the self-regulated use of retrieval practice: A higher education classroom experiment
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“…have done in a real-life classroom setting, with their behavior being guided by pragmatics, such as upcoming exams or assignments rather than systematic decision making (e.g., Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012; Kornell & Bjork, 2007; Rovers, Stalmeijer, van Meriënboer, Savelberg, & de Bruin, 2018).”
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Ace Your Self-Study: A Mobile Application to Support Self-Regulated Learning
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A Comparison of Study Behaviors and Metacognitive Evaluation Used by Biology Students
Ewell, S. N., Driessen, E. P., Grogan, W., Johnston, Q., Ferdous, S., Mehari, Y., Peart, A., Seibenhener, M. L., & Ballen, C. J. (2023) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.22-11-0225 · Cited by 25
“However, some students passively read through flashcards or old exam keys rather than using these strategies actively (Hartwig and Dunlosky, 2012; Bjork et al. , 2013).”
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How to activate students’ natural desire to test themselves
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“Moreover, in a study conducted by Hartwig and Dunlosky in a large undergraduate course that evaluated students’ study strategies, those who reported scheduling their work in advance had higher grade point average (GPA) in their overall university academic performance than students who had trouble managing deadlines [1…”
BackgroundMultiple-Choice and Short-Answer Quizzing on Equal Footing in the Classroom
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Novice teachers’ knowledge of effective study strategies
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“Cramming is a widely used study strategy where students mass their study sessions directly prior to exams or tests (Hartwig and Dunlosky, 2012).”
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“What has changed as a result of empirical research in the past decades, however, is an understanding that effective strategies (see desirable difficulties, Bjork, 1994; Yan et al., 2017) are not always obvious or intuitive (McCabe, 2011; Hartwig and Dunlosky, 2012; Bjork et al., 2013).”
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“That result is in line with the general popularity of retrieval practice as a learning strategy (e.g., Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012; Pan et al., 2020), although students tend to regard self-testing as a method of assessing one ’ s own learning as opposed to enhancing it (Pan & Bjork, 2022).”
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“Survey research by Kornell and Bjork (2007) and Hartwig and Dunlosky (2012) on students’ study strategies has demonstrated that students are aware of one benefit of testing—namely, that testing themselves can identify better than can restudying what they have and have not learned and understood—but…”
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Is retrieval the key? Metamemory judgment and testing as learning strategies
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“Because the latter also seems to be a very popular strategy among students (Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012; Wallace et al., 2022), we compared main idea summarization with rereading as potential moderators in the current study.”
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“…time (Rohrer and Pashlet, 2007; Sisti et al., 2007; Son, 2004), study blocks need to be ideally at least a few hours (Kunal, 2008; Ukpong and George, 2013), and the format and study environment needs to accommodate individual learning preferences (Dunlosky et al., 2013; Hartwig and Dunlosky, 2012).”
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“Studies that surveyed students about their study timing found many students do use spacing (47% in Hartwig and Dunlosky, 2012; 48% in Morehead et al. , 2016; 57% in Rodriguez et al. , 2018), though clearly there is room for improvement.”
InfluentialCan Learners Allocate Their Study Time Effectively? It Is Complicated
Tekin, E. (2021) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-021-09645-2 · Cited by 18
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Mobile Learning to Support Self-Regulated Learning
Baars, M., & Viberg, O. (2022) · International Journal of Mobile and Blended Learning · doi:10.4018/ijmbl.315628 · Cited by 20
McClellan, D., Chastain, R. J., & DeCaro, M. S. (2023) · Journal of Computing in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s12528-023-09379-w · Cited by 18
Muteti, C. Z., Jacob, B. I., & Mutambuki, J. M. (2023) · Chemistry Education Research and Practice · doi:10.1039/d3rp00103b · Cited by 17
Holm, A. K. J., Hausman, H., & Rhodes, M. G. (2020) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.1080/07448481.2020.1785472 · Cited by 16
Metacognitive Training and Online Community College Students’ Learning Calibration and Performance
Emory, B., & Luo, T. (2020) · Community College Journal of Research and Practice · doi:10.1080/10668926.2020.1841042 · Cited by 16
Gilmore, N., Mirman, D., & Kiran, S. (2022) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2021_jslhr-21-00324 · Cited by 14
Individual differences in everyday retrospective memory failures.
Nash Unsworth, A., McMillan, B. D., Brewer, G. A., & Spillers, G. J. (2012) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2012.11.003 · Cited by 14
Rodriguez, F., Yu, R., Park, J., Rivas, M. J., Warschauer, M., & Sato, B. K. (2019) · Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Learning Analytics & Knowledge · doi:10.1145/3303772.3303841 · Cited by 20
“We used a slight modification of a study strategies survey developed for college students [5, 7].”
MethodInsights into Study Strategies and Habits: A Study with Undergraduate Students in Spain and the U.K.
Fergus, S., Heelan, A., Ibrahim, S., Oyman, H., Díaz-de-Mera, Y., & Notario, A. (2021) · Journal of Chemical Education · doi:10.1021/acs.jchemed.1c00126 · Cited by 14
Weißgerber, S. C., & Rummer, R. (2022) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2022.101679 · Cited by 14
Rodriguez, F., Fischer, C., Zhou, N., Warschauer, M., & Sewall, J. M. (2021) · SN Social Sciences · doi:10.1007/s43545-020-00013-5 · Cited by 14
Estevan, I., Sardi, R., Tejera, A. C., da Silva, A. C. R., & Tassino, B. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0247104 · Cited by 15
“As stated by Hartwig & Dunlosky [28], sleep reduction seems to be a consequence of giving up hours of sleep to obtain more study hours prior to the test.”
BackgroundMethodSalient syllabi: Examining design characteristics of science online courses in higher education
Fischer, C., McPartlan, P., Orona, G. A., Yu, R., Xu, D., & Warschauer, M. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0276839 · Cited by 19
Wang, C. K., & McWatt, S. C. (2023) · Anatomical Sciences Education · doi:10.1002/ase.2317 · Cited by 13
Grain size of recall practice for lengthy text material: Fragile and mysterious effects on memory.
Wissman, K. T., & Rawson, K. A. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000047 · Cited by 13
To mass or space? Young children do not possess adults’ incorrect biases about spaced learning
Vlach, H. A., Bredemann, C. A., & Kraft, C. (2019) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2019.02.003 · Cited by 14
Pletch, A. N., Craig, W. Y., Rappold, J. F., Whiting, J. F., & Turner, C. G. B. (2020) · Journal of surgical education · doi:10.1016/j.jsurg.2020.06.025 · Cited by 13
Challenges of Shaping Student Study Strategies for Success
Maurer, T. W., & Shipp, C. (2021) · Teaching & Learning Inquiry The ISSOTL Journal · doi:10.20343/teachlearninqu.9.1.16 · Cited by 15
The Use of Retrieval Practice in the Health Professions: A State-of-the-Art Review
Serra, M. J., Kaminske, A. N., Nebel, C. L., & Coppola, K. M. (2025) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs15070974 · Cited by 20
“Those students who engage in retrieval practice often do so for assessment purposes and not as a learning strategy (Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012).”
Cognitive Strategies: Moderating the Relationship between Executive Functions and Daily Functioning
Fogel, Y. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192416845 · Cited by 15
“Whereas most prior studies addressed the relationships between cognitive strategies and learning and achievement [34], this study examines cognitive strategies and daily functioning as assessed by the TOPS.”
BackgroundSebesta, A. J., & Speth, E. B. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0287313 · Cited by 16
“Empirical evidence shows that students who frequently implement certain study strategies tend to have higher academic achievement, compared to students who implement these strategies less frequently [48, 51–55].”
Egyetemi tanulmányaikat megkezdő hallgatók tanulási mintázata és tanulói profilja
Molnár, É. D., & Gál, Z. (2019) · Iskolakultúra · doi:10.14232/iskkult.2019.1.29 · Cited by 12
Pharmacy Students’ Perception of an Elective Course on Evidence-based Learning Strategies
de la Peña, I., Knecht, K. T., & Gavaza, P. (2020) · American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education · doi:10.5688/ajpe8232 · Cited by 12
“These are effective applications of this strategy(3) as opposed to using it to evaluate the status of one’s learning.(3,13,16) Nevertheless, students commented that retrieval practice and elaboration required time and effort, which may affect adherence to these learning strategies.”
BackgroundMethodRelationships Among Study Guide Format, Academic Motivation, Self-Efficacy, and Student Grades
Shane‐Simpson, C., Desens, E., Kleutsch, A., & Obeid, R. (2022) · Teaching of Psychology · doi:10.1177/00986283221134594 · Cited by 14
“Not surprisingly, higher-achieving students are more likely to utilize effective study strategies (e.g., self-testing) and less likely to use ineffective strategies (e.g., cramming before an exam; Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012).”
Effects of business school student’s study time on the learning process
Tetteh, G. A. (2016) · Journal of International Education in Business · doi:10.1108/jieb-06-2016-0012 · Cited by 13
Zhou, J. T., & Wang, X. (2020) · The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher · doi:10.1007/s40299-020-00541-x · Cited by 13
Equity-Forward Learning Analytics: Designing a Dashboard to Support Marginalized Student Success
Sloan-Lynch, J., & Morse, R. (2024) · International Conference on Learning Analytics and Knowledge (LAK) · doi:10.1145/3636555.3636844 · Cited by 13
Why and how do undergraduates study in groups?
McCabe, J. A., & Lummis, S. N. (2018) · Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology · doi:10.1037/stl0000099 · Cited by 11
“This rate is even higher than what has been previously reported in undergraduate surveys (e.g., Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012; Wissman & Rawson, 2016).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialWaiting and Help-Seeking in Math Tutoring Exchanges
DeFeo, D. J., Bonin, D., & Ossiander-Gobeille, M. (2017) · Journal of developmental education · Cited by 11
Do Students Effectively Regulate Their Use of Self-Testing as a Function of Item Difficulty?
Badali, S., Rawson, K. A., & Dunlosky, J. T. (2022) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-022-09665-6 · Cited by 14
Self-citationEvidence for the negative impact of reward on self-regulated learning
Wehe, H. S., Rhodes, M. G., & Seger, C. A. (2015) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2015.1061566 · Cited by 12
Pacing, Pixels, and Paper: Flexibility in Learning Words from Flashcards
Sage, K. D., Rausch, J., Quirk, A., & Halladay, L. (2016) · Journal of Information Technology Education Research · doi:10.28945/3549 · Cited by 11
“Furthermore, when considering control options, Homer and Plass (2014) reported that students high in executive function performed more successfully after self-guided presentations while students low in executive function performed more successfully after program-guided presentations.”
BackgroundMcCabe, J. A., Friedman‐Wheeler, D. G., Davis, S. R., & Pearce, J. (2020) · Teaching of Psychology · doi:10.1177/0098628320979865 · Cited by 14
“…body of research has established the robust effectiveness of several core learning strategies (e.g., spacing, testing; Dunlosky et al., 2013), though undergraduates tend to show low awareness and use of some of these techniques (e.g., Blasiman et al., 2017; Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012; McCabe, 2011).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Hartwig, M. K., & Dunlosky, J.
- Affiliations
- Kent State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Hartwig, Marissa K.
- Venue
- Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
- Published
- 2011-11-15
- Volume
- 19
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 126-134
- ISSN
- 1069-9384 (ISSN-L)
- 1531-5320
- OpenAlex
- W2110942371
- Cited by
- 477
- References
- 22
- Citations by year
- 2026: 23 · 2025: 42 · 2024: 47 · 2023: 41 · 2022: 63 · 2021: 42 · 2020: 56 · 2019: 39 · 2018: 30 · 2017: 25 · 2016: 23 · 2015: 18 · 2014: 14 · 2013: 8 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 4.49
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Psychonomic Bulletin & Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Education › Educational Outcomes and Influences
- Keywords
- study habits, self-testing, re-reading, study scheduling, university students, academic performance, grade point average
- MeSH terms
- Achievement, Female, Humans, Male, Surveys and Questionnaires, Students, Universities, Test Taking Skills
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