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Study strategies of college students: Are self-testing and scheduling related to achievement?
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Previous studies, such as those by Kornell and Bjork (Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14:219-224, 2007) and Karpicke, Butler, and Roediger (Memory, 17:471-479, 2009), have surveyed college students' use of various study strategies, including self-testing and rereading. These studies have documented that some students do use self-testing (but largely for monitoring memory) and rereading, but the researchers did not assess whether individual differences in strategy use were related to student achievement. Thus, we surveyed 324 undergraduates about their study habits as well as their college grade point average (GPA). Importantly, the survey included questions about self-testing, scheduling one's study, and a checklist of strategies commonly used by students or recommended by cognitive research. Use of self-testing and rereading were both positively associated with GPA. Scheduling of study time was also an important factor: Low performers were more likely to engage in late-night studying than were high performers; massing (vs. spacing) of study was associated with the use of fewer study strategies overall; and all students-but especially low performers-were driven by impending deadlines. Thus, self-testing, rereading, and scheduling of study play important roles in real-world student achievement.
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“Despite the evidence for their effectiveness for long-term learning, the uptake of desirable difficulties is still too low in students in higher education (Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012).”
From Worth the Effort: the Start and Stick to Desirable Difficulties (S2D2) Framework (2023) · cites this paper as Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012
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“They did not, however, increase their self-testing (50%) to levels equivalent to other undergraduate surveys, found to be 71% in Hartwig and Dunlosky (2012), 72% in Morehead et al. (2016), and 62% in Williams et al. (2021).”
From Moving the Needle: Evidence of an Effective Study Strategy Intervention in a Community College Biology Course (2022) · cites this paper as Hartwig and Dunlosky (2012)
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“This amount of spacing matches the 64% of students who reported spacing their studying in Rodriguez et al. (2018). It is higher than that reported in Hartwig and Dunlosky at 47% (2012) and in Morehead et al. at 48% (2016).”
From Moving the Needle: Evidence of an Effective Study Strategy Intervention in a Community College Biology Course (2022) · cites this paper as Hartwig and Dunlosky (2012)
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“Self-testing is a strategy used by many students, with Hartwig and Dunlosky reporting 71% of students (2012), and Morehead et al. reporting 72% of students (2016) saying they self-test, but this strategy is less often used by students historically excluded from STEM because of race or ethnicity (Rodriguez et al., 2018; Williams et al., 2021).”
From Moving the Needle: Evidence of an Effective Study Strategy Intervention in a Community College Biology Course (2022) · cites this paper as Hartwig and Dunlosky, 2012
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“Drawing of any type is infrequently used, with Hartwig and Dunlosky finding only 15% of students using drawing (2012) and Morehead et al. (2016) finding only 24% of students using drawing as a main study strategy (2019).”
From Moving the Needle: Evidence of an Effective Study Strategy Intervention in a Community College Biology Course (2022) · cites this paper as Hartwig and Dunlosky, 2012
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“Studies that surveyed students about their study timing found many students do use spacing (47% in Hartwig and Dunlosky, 2012; 48% in Morehead et al., 2016; 57% in Rodriguez et al., 2018), though clearly there is room for improvement.”
From Moving the Needle: Evidence of an Effective Study Strategy Intervention in a Community College Biology Course (2022) · cites this paper as Hartwig and Dunlosky, 2012
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“Even when more specific study behaviors are measured (Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012; Morehead et al., 2016), using GPA as the outcome is problematic because students may use different strategies across different courses and final course grades contain components that may be less related to study…”
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“Self-assessment, a metacognitive tool, is often used by successful students and positively affects overall success (Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012).”
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“Previous research (Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012; Kornell & Bjork, 2007; Morehead et al., 2016) based on more than 1,200 psychology undergraduates shows that more than 50% of students indicated that they prioritized whatever is due soonest when determining what to study next.”
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“In contrast, evidence suggests that they fail to fully recognize the benefits of retrieval practice as a means for enhancing learning and memory (e.g., Blasiman et al., 2017; Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012; Tullis & Maddox, 2020).”
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““Surface” Learning Strategies Memorizing [11] Note taking [14], [15] Passing the course just to graduate or get a good job [21] Little interest in usefulness of the course [11], [21] Seeking “canned” solutions to homework problems [22] “Deep” Learning Strategies Arranging an enabling study environment [13], [15] Self-…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialFormative evaluation of a brief video addressing student exam study habits and wellness behaviors
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“College students’ study habits are invariably attributed to academic success and ultimately graduation (Hartwig and Dunlosky 2012).”
Lineweaver, T. T., Hall, A. C. G., Throgmorton, H., Callahan, S. M., & Bell, A. J. (2022) · Journal of College Reading and Learning · doi:10.1080/10790195.2022.2056097 · Cited by 1
“Together, these shortcomings in students’ knowledge of study approaches and their likelihood of improving performance may undermine students’ academic success (Carpenter et al., 2013; Dunlosky & Rawson, 2012; Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012; Lerchenfeldt & Nyland, 2016; Liew et al., 2015).”
BackgroundYamaguchi, T. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0274548 · Cited by 3
“In fact, it has been reported that what may be effective for the researcher may not be perceived as such by the learner [9, 10].”
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Ploran, E. J., Overman, A. A., Lee, J. T., Masnick, A. M., Weingartner, K. M., & Finuf, K. D. (2022) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2022.103815 · Cited by 4
Low and High Performing First-Year Engineering Students’ Learning and Metacognitive Strategies
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ADOLESCENT SELF-REGULATED LEARNING DEVELOPMENT IN SCHOOL: A PSYCHO-EDUCATIONAL PERSPECTIVE
Moseki, M. M. (2013) · Unisa Institutional Repository (University of South Africa) · Cited by 1
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Rovers, S. F. E. (2020) · Research Publications (Maastricht University) · doi:10.26481/dis.20200916sr · Cited by 1
Optimizing learning through retrieval practice and spacing
Carpenter, S. K. (2022) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-818630-5.14078-3 · Cited by 2
Chouvalova, A., Navlekar, A. S., Mills, D. J., Adams, M., Daye, S., Anda, F. D., & Limeri, L. B. (2023) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2023.09.25.559345 · Cited by 1
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Use and perception of beyond-the-classroom learning skills by students in high school
Yusko, A. (2020) · Scholars Archive - University at Albany (University at Albany, State University of New York) · doi:10.54014/g0rh-k464 · Cited by 1
Dunlosky, J. T., & Rawson, K. A. (2015)
Self-citationBrush It Up: On-Line Resources for Fostering Independent Learning
Eisenchlas, S. A., & Schalley, A. C. (2016) · International Conference of Educational Innovation through Technology (EITT) · doi:10.1109/eitt.2016.35
Self-monitoring in third year medical students’ haematology clerkships
Vuma, S., & Sa, B. (2017) · International Journal of Research in Medical Sciences · doi:10.18203/2320-6012.ijrms20175711
Shuhidan, S. M., Awang, Y., Mohamed, N., & Zakaria, Z. N. Z. (2019) · e-Academia Journal · doi:10.24191/e-aj.v7isi-temic18.5380
“Hartwig and Dunlosky (2012) surveyed 324 undergraduates and demonstrated that students’ use of self-testing was positively associated with GPA.”
BackgroundUsing Technology to Promote Student Ownership of Retrieval Practice
Courchesne, S., & Cohen, S. M. (2019) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-1770-3.ch003
DEVELOPING FLASHCARDS AS AN INNOVATIVE TEACHING TOOL FOR THE PHARMACOLOGY CLASSES
Gómez‐Guzmán, M., Verley, S., Sánchez-Santos, M., Romero, M., Díaz‐Castro, J., & Duarte, J. (2019) · ICERI proceedings · doi:10.21125/iceri.2019.2481
Practice tests improve performance, increase engagement and protect from psychological distress
Marlin, S., English, T., Morley, L., O’Keefe-Quinn, T., & Whitfield, P. (2020) · International Conference on Higher Education Advances (HEAd) · doi:10.4995/head20.2020.11151
“Results from Hartwig and Dunlosky (2012) suggest that while students may engage in self-testing when preparing for exams, they view this as a tool to evaluate knowledge, rather than to aid learning.”
BackgroundCarpenter, W. E. (2020) · Digital Commons (Liberty University)
The Influence of Feedback on Predictions of Future Memory Performance
Sitzman, D. M., & Rhodes, M. G. (2013) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e633262013-768
Fostering self-regulated learning
Hui, L. (2021) · Research Publications (Maastricht University) · doi:10.26481/dis.20211206lh
Metadata
- Authors
- Hartwig, M. K., & Dunlosky, J.
- Affiliations
- Kent State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Hartwig, Marissa K.
- Venue
- Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
- Published
- 2011-11-15
- Volume
- 19
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 126-134
- ISSN
- 1069-9384 (ISSN-L)
- 1531-5320
- OpenAlex
- W2110942371
- Cited by
- 477
- References
- 22
- Citations by year
- 2026: 23 · 2025: 42 · 2024: 47 · 2023: 41 · 2022: 63 · 2021: 42 · 2020: 56 · 2019: 39 · 2018: 30 · 2017: 25 · 2016: 23 · 2015: 18 · 2014: 14 · 2013: 8 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 4.49
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Psychonomic Bulletin & Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Education › Educational Outcomes and Influences
- Keywords
- study habits, self-testing, re-reading, study scheduling, university students, academic performance, grade point average
- MeSH terms
- Achievement, Female, Humans, Male, Surveys and Questionnaires, Students, Universities, Test Taking Skills
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