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Study strategies of college students: Are self-testing and scheduling related to achievement?
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Previous studies, such as those by Kornell and Bjork (Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14:219-224, 2007) and Karpicke, Butler, and Roediger (Memory, 17:471-479, 2009), have surveyed college students' use of various study strategies, including self-testing and rereading. These studies have documented that some students do use self-testing (but largely for monitoring memory) and rereading, but the researchers did not assess whether individual differences in strategy use were related to student achievement. Thus, we surveyed 324 undergraduates about their study habits as well as their college grade point average (GPA). Importantly, the survey included questions about self-testing, scheduling one's study, and a checklist of strategies commonly used by students or recommended by cognitive research. Use of self-testing and rereading were both positively associated with GPA. Scheduling of study time was also an important factor: Low performers were more likely to engage in late-night studying than were high performers; massing (vs. spacing) of study was associated with the use of fewer study strategies overall; and all students-but especially low performers-were driven by impending deadlines. Thus, self-testing, rereading, and scheduling of study play important roles in real-world student achievement.
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“Despite the evidence for their effectiveness for long-term learning, the uptake of desirable difficulties is still too low in students in higher education (Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012).”
From Worth the Effort: the Start and Stick to Desirable Difficulties (S2D2) Framework (2023) · cites this paper as Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012
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“They did not, however, increase their self-testing (50%) to levels equivalent to other undergraduate surveys, found to be 71% in Hartwig and Dunlosky (2012), 72% in Morehead et al. (2016), and 62% in Williams et al. (2021).”
From Moving the Needle: Evidence of an Effective Study Strategy Intervention in a Community College Biology Course (2022) · cites this paper as Hartwig and Dunlosky (2012)
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“This amount of spacing matches the 64% of students who reported spacing their studying in Rodriguez et al. (2018). It is higher than that reported in Hartwig and Dunlosky at 47% (2012) and in Morehead et al. at 48% (2016).”
From Moving the Needle: Evidence of an Effective Study Strategy Intervention in a Community College Biology Course (2022) · cites this paper as Hartwig and Dunlosky (2012)
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“Self-testing is a strategy used by many students, with Hartwig and Dunlosky reporting 71% of students (2012), and Morehead et al. reporting 72% of students (2016) saying they self-test, but this strategy is less often used by students historically excluded from STEM because of race or ethnicity (Rodriguez et al., 2018; Williams et al., 2021).”
From Moving the Needle: Evidence of an Effective Study Strategy Intervention in a Community College Biology Course (2022) · cites this paper as Hartwig and Dunlosky, 2012
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“Drawing of any type is infrequently used, with Hartwig and Dunlosky finding only 15% of students using drawing (2012) and Morehead et al. (2016) finding only 24% of students using drawing as a main study strategy (2019).”
From Moving the Needle: Evidence of an Effective Study Strategy Intervention in a Community College Biology Course (2022) · cites this paper as Hartwig and Dunlosky, 2012
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“Studies that surveyed students about their study timing found many students do use spacing (47% in Hartwig and Dunlosky, 2012; 48% in Morehead et al., 2016; 57% in Rodriguez et al., 2018), though clearly there is room for improvement.”
From Moving the Needle: Evidence of an Effective Study Strategy Intervention in a Community College Biology Course (2022) · cites this paper as Hartwig and Dunlosky, 2012
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Effects of Test Anxiety on Self-Testing and Learning Performance
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BackgroundConductas previas al “Estudio de textos en ámbito académico”
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“Yet, the high effort these desirable difficulties evoke combined with the often delayed effects on learning prevents students from spontaneously engaging in desirable difficulties during self-study [9].”
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Endo, M. M. C., Miguel, F. K., & Kienen, N. (2017) · Quaderns de Psicologia · doi:10.5565/rev/qpsicologia.1377 · Cited by 5
Cleary, A. M., McNeely-White, K. L., Hausman, H. E., Dawson, J., Kuhn, S., Osborn, R. M., Huebert, A. M., & Rhodes, M. G. (2021) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2021.01.001 · Cited by 5
Broeren, M., Verkoeijen, P. P. J. L., Heijltjes, A. E. G., Arends, L. R., & Smeets, G. (2023) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.4078 · Cited by 7
The impact of effective study strategy use in an introductory anatomy and physiology class
Firetto, C. M., Starrett, E., Montalbano, A. C., Yan, L., Penkrot, T. A., Kingsbury, J. S., & Hyatt, J. K. (2023) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2023.1161772 · Cited by 6
Learning by Tagging – Supporting Constructive Learning in Video-Based Environments
Harbarth, L., Delsing, S., Richtscheid, F., Yücepur, V., Feldmann, F., Akhavanfarm, M., Manske, S., Othlinghaus, J., & Hoppe, H. U. (2018) · Universitätsbibliographie, Universität Duisburg-Essen · Cited by 5
Kubik, V., Frey, I.-G., & Gaschler, R. (2021) · Psychology Learning & Teaching · doi:10.1177/14757257211036566 · Cited by 11
“The application of effective learning strategies has also been shown to be correlated with future academic success (Geller et al., 2018; Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012), yet there is evidence suggesting that students often rely on rather ineffective learning strategies in everyday life (for reviews, see…”
BackgroundDurability of Students’ Learning Strategies Use and Beliefs Following a Classroom Intervention
Yüksel, E. M., Green, C. S., & Vlach, H. A. (2025) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs15050706 · Cited by 7
“…outcomes (e.g., Lyons & Zelazo, 2011; Ahmed et al., 2019), research has indicated that disparities in learning performance are also related to variations in how students approach learning (Bowen & Wingo, 2012; Bartoszewski & Gurung, 2015; Hassanbeigi et al., 2011; Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012).”
InfluentialHernández-Rodríguez, J. C., Ortiz, A. M. R., & Alzate, V. C. (2024) · Revista Colombiana de Educación · doi:10.17227/rce.num93-19804 · Cited by 4
“…2015b) y Van Dijk (1978, 1996), para la escritura en relación con las expuestas por Osses y Jaramillo (2008), Valle et al. (1999), Dunlosky (2013), Hartwig y Dunlosky (2012) y Brown et al. (2018), desde el campo de la metacognición, se realizó el contraste con las estrategias identificadas por…”
Spaced repetition and active recall improves academic performance among pharmacy students
Saravanan, J. (2025) · Currents in Pharmacy Teaching and Learning · doi:10.1016/j.cptl.2025.102510 · Cited by 7
Kim, Y.-E., Smith-Peirce, R. N., & Butler, A. C. (2025) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-025-09448-8 · Cited by 4
“Based on prior literature, we created a list of cognitive learning strategies (Dunlosky et al., 2013; Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012; Karpicke et al., 2009) and a list of motivational learning strategies (Schwinger et al., 2009; Wolters & Benzon, 2013) that students commonly use when studying on their…”
Teaching older adults to use retrieval practice improves their self-regulated learning
Ariel, R., Babineau, A. L., & Tauber, S. K. (2023) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2023.2271531 · Cited by 5
“College aged learners view retrieval practice as a tool for monitoring memory (Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012; Kornell & Son, 2009).”
Chew, K.-J., & Matusovich, H. M. (2024) · Journal of Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/jee.20614 · Cited by 4
“Studies have demonstrated a lack of association between study strategies, assessment, and GPA performance (Gijbels et al., 2005; Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012), that students do not see the usefulness of retrieval practice through testing for learning (Karpicke et al., 2009), and that students tend to…”
Sultana, F., Watkins, R. C., Baghal, T. A., & Hughes, J. C. (2025) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci15010101 · Cited by 4
Lindstrom, W. A., Nelson, J. M., & Foels, P. A. (2019) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.22316 · Cited by 4
Zhang, L., Yu, Y., Liu, Y., & Qu, K. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-03678-8 · Cited by 4
“…examples refers to studying an example problem in which each step is worked out and presented alongside the solution, while problem solving is generally used to monitor the learning process and evaluate the learning effect (Foster et al., 2018; Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012; Kornell & Bjork, 2007).”
Minear, M. E., Coane, J. H., Cooney, L. H., Boland, S. C., & Serrano, J. W. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1186566 · Cited by 7
Rivers, M. L. (2023) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence11070147 · Cited by 5
Investigating assessment types in an online climate change class: moderating and mediating effects
Millet, A. L., Dinç, E., & Bralower, T. J. (2024) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-024-10392-8 · Cited by 4
“With these in mind, self-assessment, such as the knowledge check questions, enables students to engage with the course content with the advantages of the increase in grades, metacognitive skills, and academic performance (Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012; Hwang et al., 2015; Yan & Brown, 2017).”
Students’, Teachers’, and Parents’ Knowledge About and Perceptions of Learning Strategies
Witherby, A. E., Babineau, A. L., & Tauber, S. K. (2025) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs15020160 · Cited by 4
“Several researchers have explored the frequency with which students report using various learning strategies (Anthenien et al., 2018; Blasiman et al., 2017; Geller et al., 2018; Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012; Kornell & Bjork, 2007; Morehead et al., 2016; Yan et al., 2014; Zepeda & Nokes-Malach, 2021).”
Teachers’ Beliefs about Memory: A Vignette Study of Trainee and In-Service Teachers
Firth, J. (2021) · Studia Psychologica · doi:10.31577/sp.2021.02.821 · Cited by 5
“…on classroom practice and thereby their potential impact on student attainment (and the effect of such beliefs is therefore just theoretical at present), there is evidence from research in students’ independent study that connects flawed beliefs with poor outcomes (e.g., Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012).”
ResultRetrieval Practice as a Learning Strategy for Diverse Populations
Ekuni, R., & Jaeger, A. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-06908-6_15 · Cited by 6
Toro, S. (2022) · The journal of college science teaching · doi:10.1080/0047231x.2022.12290577 · Cited by 4
The impact of a student’s study time journal as a lesson and learning study
Tetteh, G. A. (2017) · International Journal for Lesson and Learning Studies · doi:10.1108/ijlls-05-2016-0013 · Cited by 5
Salient Factors for Student Success Gained through a Learning Frameworks Course
Hodges, R., Payne, E. M., Morgan, K., Johnston-Ashton, K., & Leblanc, R. (2019) · Journal of College Reading and Learning · doi:10.1080/10790195.2019.1583083 · Cited by 4
“Similarly, Hartwig and Dunlosky (2012) focused on study strategies’ relationship to exams and achievement.”
BackgroundWhitmer, D. E., Johnson, C. I., & Marraffino, M. D. (2022) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-05887-5_10 · Cited by 4
A Heuristic Evaluative Framework for Self-Regulated Learning Design
Roscoe, R. D., McNicol, S. A., Bhat, K. R., & Craig, S. D. (2020) · Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting · doi:10.1177/1071181320641429 · Cited by 4
“Thus, self-regulation may benefit from time management strategies (Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012; Rodriguez et al., 2018).”
BackgroundUsing Adaptive Flashcards for Automotive Maintenance Training in the Wild
Whitmer, D. E., Johnson, C. I., Marraffino, M. D., & Hovorka, J. (2021) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-77857-6_33 · Cited by 4
Teachers’ beliefs about memory: What are the implications for in-service teacher education?
Firth, J. (2018) · Psychology of Education Review · doi:10.53841/bpsper.2018.42.2.15 · Cited by 4
Metadata
- Authors
- Hartwig, M. K., & Dunlosky, J.
- Affiliations
- Kent State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Hartwig, Marissa K.
- Venue
- Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
- Published
- 2011-11-15
- Volume
- 19
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 126-134
- ISSN
- 1069-9384 (ISSN-L)
- 1531-5320
- OpenAlex
- W2110942371
- Cited by
- 477
- References
- 22
- Citations by year
- 2026: 23 · 2025: 42 · 2024: 47 · 2023: 41 · 2022: 63 · 2021: 42 · 2020: 56 · 2019: 39 · 2018: 30 · 2017: 25 · 2016: 23 · 2015: 18 · 2014: 14 · 2013: 8 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 4.49
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Psychonomic Bulletin & Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Education › Educational Outcomes and Influences
- Keywords
- study habits, self-testing, re-reading, study scheduling, university students, academic performance, grade point average
- MeSH terms
- Achievement, Female, Humans, Male, Surveys and Questionnaires, Students, Universities, Test Taking Skills
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