Nonmedical Stimulant Use in College Students: Association With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Other Disorders
Open accessAbstract
Objective: The nonmedical use of stimulants (misuse) in the college setting remains of utmost public health and clinical concern. The objective of this study was to evaluate comprehensively the characteristics of college students who misused stimulants, attending to rates of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), other psychopathology, and substance use disorders. Methods: The data presented are from a cross-sectional study of college students who misused prescription stimulant medications (not including cocaine or methamphetamine) and controls (college students without stimulant misuse). Between May 2010 and May 2013, college students were assessed blindly for psychopathology and substance use disorder by way of Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV-TR Axis I Disorders, Research Version, Patient Edition (SCID-I/P) and completion of self-report questionnaires. Results: The analysis included 198 controls (mean ± SD age = 20.7 ± 2.6 years) and 100 stimulant misusers (20.7 ± 1.7 years). Misusers, when compared to controls, were more likely to endorse alcohol, drug, alcohol + drug, and any substance use disorder (all P values < .01). When a subset of stimulant misusers (n = 58) was examined, 67% had a full or subthreshold prescription stimulant use disorder. Misusers also had higher rates of conduct disorder (10% vs 3%; P = .02) and ADHD (including subthreshold cases; 27% vs 16%; P = .02) in addition to lower Global Assessment of Functioning score (P < .01). Higher rates of misuse of immediate-release—relative to extended-release—stimulants were reported. Conclusions: Our data suggest that, compared to controls, college students who misuse stimulant medications are more likely to have ADHD, conduct disorder, stimulant and other substance use disorder, and overall dysfunction.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Greenhill, L. L., Pliszka, S., & Dulcan, M. K. (2002) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/00004583-200202001-00003 · Cited by 927 · see citing works
McCabe, S. E., Knight, J. R., Teter, C. J., & Wechsler, H. (2004) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.00944.x · Cited by 880 · see citing works
Misuse and Diversion of Stimulants Prescribed for ADHD: A Systematic Review of the Literature
WILENS, T. E., ADLER, L. A., ADAMS, J., SGAMBATI, S., ROTROSEN, J., SAWTELLE, R., UTZINGER, L., & FUSILLO, S. (2008) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/chi.0b013e31815a56f1 · Cited by 824 · see citing works
Self-citationAmbrosini, P. J. (2000) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/00004583-200001000-00016 · Cited by 731 · see citing works
Teter, C. J., McCabe, S. E., LaGrange, K., Cranford, J. A., & Boyd, C. J. (2006) · Pharmacotherapy The Journal of Human Pharmacology and Drug Therapy · doi:10.1592/phco.26.10.1501 · Cited by 540 · see citing works
Prevalence and Motives for Illicit Use of Prescription Stimulants in an Undergraduate Student Sample
Teter, C. J., McCabe, S. E., Cranford, J. A., Boyd, C. J., & Guthrie, S. K. (2005) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.3200/jach.53.6.253-262 · Cited by 421 · see citing works
Assessing the abuse potential of methylphenidate in nonhuman and human subjects: a review
Kollins, S. H., MacDonald, E. K., & Rush, C. R. (2001) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0091-3057(01)00464-6 · Cited by 365 · see citing works
Medical Use, Illicit Use, and Diversion of Abusable Prescription Drugs
McCabe, S. E., Teter, C. J., & Boyd, C. J. (2006) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.3200/jach.54.5.269-278 · Cited by 358 · see citing works
Stimulant Medication Use, Misuse, and Abuse in an Undergraduate and Graduate Student Sample
White, B. P., Becker‐Blease, K. A., & Grace-Bishop, K. (2006) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.3200/jach.54.5.261-268 · Cited by 333 · see citing works
Understanding Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder from Childhood to Adulthood
Wilens, T. E., & Spencer, T. J. (2010) · Postgraduate Medicine · doi:10.3810/pgm.2010.09.2206 · Cited by 324 · see citing works
Self-citationKessler, R. C., Green, J. G., Adler, L. A., Barkley, R. A., Chatterji, S., Faraone, S. V., Finkelman, M., Greenhill, L. L., Gruber, M. J., Jewell, M., et al. (2010) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.146 · Cited by 317 · see citing works
Adolescents' Motivations to Abuse Prescription Medications
Boyd, C., McCabe, S., Cranford, J., & Young, A. M. (2006) · Pediatrics · doi:10.1542/peds.2006-1644 · Cited by 288 · see citing works
Wilens, T. E., Gignac, M., Swezey, A., Monuteaux, M. C., & Biederman, J. (2006) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/01.chi.0000199027.68828.b3 · Cited by 245 · see citing works
Self-citationRabiner, D. L., Anastopoulos, A. D., Costello, E. J., Hoyle, R. H., McCabe, S. E., & Swartzwelder, H. S. (2009) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054708320399 · Cited by 238 · see citing works
Illicit Use of Prescribed Stimulant Medication Among College Students
Hall, K. M., Irwin, M. M., Bowman, K. A., Frankenberger, W. R., & Jewett, D. C. (2005) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.3200/jach.53.4.167-174 · Cited by 234 · see citing works
Weyandt, L. L., & DuPaul, G. J. (2006) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054705286061 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
Garnier-Dykstra, L. M., Caldeira, K. M., Vincent, K. B., O’Grady, K. E., & Arria, A. M. (2012) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.1080/07448481.2011.589876 · Cited by 218 · see citing works
Spencer, T. J., Biederman, J., E. Ciccone, P., Madras, B. K., Dougherty, D. D., Bonab, A. A., Livni, E., Parasrampuria, D. A., & Fischman, A. J. (2006) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.163.3.387 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
Arria, A. M., Caldeira, K. M., O’Grady, K. E., Vincent, K. B., Fitzelle, D. B., Johnson, E. P., & Wish, E. D. (2008) · Substance Abuse · doi:10.1080/08897070802418451 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Characteristics of Methylphenidate Misuse in a University Student Sample
Barrett, S. P., Darredeau, C., Bordy, L. E., & Pihl, R. O. (2005) · The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/070674370505000805 · Cited by 192 · see citing works
Arria, A. M., & DuPont, R. L. (2010) · Journal of Addictive Diseases · doi:10.1080/10550887.2010.509273 · Cited by 190 · see citing works
Arria, A. M., Caldeira, K. M., O’Grady, K. E., Vincent, K. B., Johnson, E. P., & Wish, E. D. (2008) · Pharmacotherapy The Journal of Human Pharmacology and Drug Therapy · doi:10.1592/phco.28.2.156 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Medical and nonmedical stimulant use among adolescents: from sanctioned to unsanctioned use.
Poulin, C. (2001) · PubMed · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Upadhyaya, H. P., Rose, K., Wang, W., O'Rourke, K., Sullivan, B., Deas, D., & Brady, K. T. (2005) · Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1089/cap.2005.15.799 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
Teter, C. J., Falone, A. E., Cranford, J. A., Boyd, C. J., & McCabe, S. E. (2010) · Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2010.01.005 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
The intersection of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and substance abuse
Wilens, T. E., & Morrison, N. R. (2011) · Current Opinion in Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/yco.0b013e328345c956 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Self-citationMedical and Nonmedical Use of Prescription Stimulants: Results From a National Multicohort Study
McCabe, S. E., & West, B. T. (2013) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2013.09.005 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Spencer, T. J., Abikoff, H., Connor, D. F., Biederman, J., Pliszka, S. R., Boellner, S. W., Read, S. C., & Pratt, R. D. (2006) · Clinical Therapeutics · doi:10.1016/j.clinthera.2006.03.006 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Do Formulation Differences Alter Abuse Liability of Methylphenidate?
Parasrampuria, D. A., Schoedel, K. A., Schuller, R., Silber, S. A., Ciccone, P. E., Gu, J., & Sellers, E. M. (2007) · Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1097/jcp.0b013e3181515205 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Characteristics associated with the diversion of controlled medications among adolescents
McCabe, S. E., West, B. T., Teter, C. J., Ross-Durow, P. L., Young, A. M., & Boyd, C. J. (2011) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.05.004 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Predictors of Nonmedical ADHD Medication Use by College Students
Rabiner, D. L., Anastopoulos, A. D., Costello, E. J., Hoyle, R. H., & Swartzwelder, H. S. (2009) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054709334505 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Attitudes of College Students Toward Mental Illness Stigma and the Misuse of Psychiatric Medications
Stone, A. M., & Merlo, L. J. (2010) · The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.4088/jcp.09m05254ecr · Cited by 64 · see citing works
The Drug Use Screening Inventory for Adults: Psychometric Structure and Discriminative Sensitivity
Tarter, R. E., & Kirisci, L. (1997) · The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse · doi:10.3109/00952999709040942 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Using Stimulants for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Stevens, J. R., Wilens, T. E., & Stern, T. A. (2013) · The Primary Care Companion For CNS Disorders · doi:10.4088/pcc.12f01472 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Self-citationWinhusen, T. M., Lewis, D. F., Riggs, P., Davies, R. D., Adler, L. A., Sonne, S. C., & Somoza, E. C. (2011) · Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1089/cap.2011.0014 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Upadhyaya, H. P., Kroutil, L. A., Deas, D., Durell, T. M., Brunt, D. L. V., & Novak, S. P. (2010) · American Journal on Addictions · doi:10.1111/j.1521-0391.2010.00078.x · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Psychostimulant Dependence in a Community Sample
Wu, L.-T. T., & Schlenger, W. E. (2003) · Substance Use & Misuse · doi:10.1081/ja-120017246 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- [25]APA. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders IV. 4th ed. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association Press; 1994.
- [36]Wilens TE, Gignac M, Swezey A, Monuteaux MC, Biederman J. Characteristics of adolescents and young adults with ADHD who divert or misuse their prescribed medications. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2006 4; 45(4): 408– 414. 16601645
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Faraone, S. V., Rostain, A. L., Montano, C. B., Mason, O., Antshel, K. M., & Newcorn, J. H. (2020) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2019.06.012 · Cited by 225 · see citing works
The ASAM/AAAP Clinical Practice Guideline on the Management of Stimulant Use Disorder
(2024) · Journal of Addiction Medicine · doi:10.1097/adm.0000000000001299 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Prescription Drug Misuse: Taking a Lifespan Perspective
Schepis, T. S., Klare, D. L., Ford, J. A., & McCabe, S. E. (2020) · Substance Abuse Research and Treatment · doi:10.1177/1178221820909352 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
McCabe, S. E., Wilens, T. E., Boyd, C. J., Chua, K.-P., Voepel-Lewis, T., & Schepis, T. S. (2019) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.11.010 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Self-citationMartı́nez-Raga, J., Ferreros, A., Knecht, C., de Alvaro, R., & Carabal, E. (2016) · Therapeutic Advances in Drug Safety · doi:10.1177/2042098616679636 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Mattingly, G. W., Wilson, J. A., Ugarte, L., & Glaser, P. E. A. (2020) · CNS Spectrums · doi:10.1017/s1092852919001822 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Neuropsychological functioning in college students who misuse prescription stimulants
Wilens, T. E., Carrellas, N. W., Martelon, M., Yule, A. M., Fried, R. S., Anselmo, R., & McCabe, S. E. (2017) · American Journal on Addictions · doi:10.1111/ajad.12551 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Self-citationFeigning ADHD and stimulant misuse among Dutch university students
Fuermaier, A. B. M., Tucha, O. M., Koerts, J., Tucha, L., Thome, J., & Faltraco, F. (2021) · Journal of Neural Transmission · doi:10.1007/s00702-020-02296-7 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Pagán, A. F., Huizar, Y. P., Short, T. R., Gotcher, Z., & Schmidt, A. (2023) · Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports · doi:10.1007/s11910-023-01280-4 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Transitional Aged Youth
Wilens, T. E., Isenberg, B. M., Kaminski, T. A., Lyons, R. M., & Quintero, J. (2018) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-018-0968-x · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Self-citationPsychosocial functioning among college students who misuse stimulants versus other drugs
Cole, V. T., & Hussong, A. M. (2020) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106290 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Taubin, D., Wilson, J. C., & Wilens, T. (2022) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.chc.2022.01.005 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Self-citationBenson, K., Woodlief, D. T., Flory, K., Siceloff, E. R., Coleman, K., & Lamont, A. E. (2018) · Experimental and clinical psychopharmacology · doi:10.1037/pha0000202 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Wilens, T. E., & Kaminski, T. A. (2019) · Pediatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.pcl.2019.08.006 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Self-citationCarolan, D. (2021) · Irish Journal of Medical Science (1971 -) · doi:10.1007/s11845-020-02502-1 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Westover, A. N., Nakonezny, P. A., Halm, E. A., & Adinoff, B. H. (2017) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.14122 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Schepis, T. S., Buckner, J. D., Klare, D. L., Wade, L. R., & Benedetto, N. (2020) · Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1037/pha0000386 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
The Co-Occurrence of ADHD and Substance Use Disorders
Wilens, T., & Kaminski, T. (2018) · Psychiatric annals · doi:10.3928/00485713-20180613-01 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Self-citationBlevins, D., Choi, C. J., Pavlicová, M., Martinez, D., Mariani, J. J., Grabowski, J. G., & LEVIN, F. R. (2020) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2020.108082 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Yin, P., Zhao, C., Li, Y., Liu, X., Chen, L., & Hong, N. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.735623 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Disentangling the Social Context of Nonmedical Use of Prescription Stimulants in College Students
Wilens, T. E., Martelon, M., Yule, A. M., Kaminski, T. A., Burke, C. W., Schepis, T. S., & McCabe, S. E. (2020) · American Journal on Addictions · doi:10.1111/ajad.13053 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationLEVIN, F. R., Mariani, J. J., Pavlicová, M., Choi, C. J., Basaraba, C. N., Mahony, A. L., Brooks, D. J., Brezing, C., & Naqvi, N. H. (2024) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/10870547241264675 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
ADHD in College Students - a Guide for Clinicians and Administrators
Winkler, A., Bohle-Frankel, B., White, L. A., Strauss, G. D., & Gottlieb, D. T. (2020) · Current Psychopharmacologye · doi:10.2174/2211556009999200616132427 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Treatment of Comorbid Substance Use Disorders and ADHD in Youth
Carrellas, N. W., Wilens, T., & Anselmo, R. (2016) · Current Treatment Options in Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s40501-016-0072-y · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationChapter 47. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Wilens, T. E., & Kaminski, T. A. (2021) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9781615373970.kb47 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Self-citationBaweja, R. K., Waschbusch, D. A., Padilla, F. M., Baweja, R., Singh, B., Pelham, W. E., Molina, B. S. G., Wilens, T. E., & Waxmonsky, J. G. (2025) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2025.12.003 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationGoodman, D. W., Mago, R., Citrome, L., Swartz, H. A., McIntyre, R. S., Freeman, M. P., Clayton, A. H., Kasper, S. F., Vieta, E., Williams, A. R., et al. (2026) · European Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2026.112863 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Baweja, R. K., Pawar, A. K. S., Waxmonsky, J. G., & Wilens, T. E. (2025) · Psychiatric Annals · doi:10.3928/00485713-20250729-01 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationHolt, L. J., Langdon, S. W., & Feinn, R. (2023) · Journal of Drug Issues · doi:10.1177/00220426231155664 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Caron, C., Dondaine, T., Bastien, A., Chérot‐Kornobis, N., Deheul, S., Gautier, S., Cottencin, O., Moreau-Crépeaux, S., Bordet, R., & Carton, L. (2023) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2023.115630 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Park, J. A., Joung, Y., Kim, J. H., Yoon, H. J., Lee, D. I., Oh, S., & Kim, B. (2019) · 신경정신의학 · doi:10.4306/jknpa.2019.58.2.130 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Parks, K. A., Frone, M. R., & Muraven, M. (2020) · Substance Use & Misuse · doi:10.1080/10826084.2020.1762651 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Franke, A. G., Koller, G., Neumann, S., Proebstl, L., Manz, K. M., Krause, D., Kamp, F., Hager, L., & Soyka, M. (2021) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-021-00682-0
Jean, F. A. M. (2023) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/4f836fa7z0a4ez4eb1z9364z9a264cce0262
Johnson, B., Chan, G., Connor, J. P., Stjepanović, D., Leung, J., & Sun, T. (2026) · Drug and Alcohol Review · doi:10.1111/dar.70168
- Authors
- Wilens, T., Zulauf, C., Martelon, M., Morrison, N. R., Simon, A., Carrellas, N. W., Yule, A., & Anselmo, R.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- Massachusetts General Hospital (US)
- Venue
- The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Physicians Postgraduate Press, Inc
- Published
- 2016-07-27
- Volume
- 77
- Issue
- 07
- Pages
- 940-947
- ISSN
- 0160-6689 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6438382
- OpenAlex
- W2495043425
- Cited by
- 35
- References
- 37
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 2
- FWCI
- 2.33
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (K24DA016264, K12DA000357)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neuroethics, Human Enhancement, Biomedical Innovations
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes
- Keywords
- stimulant medication, university students, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, conduct disorder, substance use disorders, alcohol consumption, polydrug use, Global Assessment of Functioning, psychopathology
- MeSH terms
- Alcohol Drinking in College, Central Nervous System Stimulants, Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Female, Humans, Male, Massachusetts, Statistics as Topic, Students, Conduct Disorder, Substance-Related Disorders, Young Adult, Prescription Drug Misuse
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
