The DOI matches its Crossref record; 189 of the 194 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Integrating Theories of Motivation
Abstract
Progress toward understanding human behavior has been hindered by discipline-bound theories, dividing our efforts. Fortunately, these separate endeavors are converging and can be effectively integrated. Focusing on the fundamental features of picoeconomics, expectancy theory, cumulative prospect theory, and need theory, we construct a temporal motivational theory (TMT). TMT appears consistent with the major findings from many other investigations, including psychobiology and behaviorism. The potential implications of TMT are numerous, affecting our understanding on a wide range of topics, including group behavior, job design, stock market behavior, and goal setting.
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In the citing paper
“Temporal motivational theory is proposed as an integrated explanation for procrastination, consisting of the interaction of four different variables: expectancy, value, impulsiveness, and time, each of which affects the tendency to procrastinate.”
From Understanding and Treating Procrastination: A Review of a Common Self-Regulatory Failure (2014) · cites this paper as Steel & König, 2006
In the citing paper
“Steel and König (2006) therefore proposed a general model of motivation that incorporates a variety of aspects believed to affect decision-making processes: temporal motivational theory (TMT).”
From Understanding and Treating Procrastination: A Review of a Common Self-Regulatory Failure (2014) · cites this paper as Steel & König, 2006
In the citing paper
“In particular, planning fallacy and future discounting are assumed to be related to procrastination, for they result in poor time management and the inability to learn from past difficulties faced in tasks and assignments, as well as the propensity to choose those activities that result in immediate gratification instead of future rewards (Steel & König, 2006).”
From Understanding and Treating Procrastination: A Review of a Common Self-Regulatory Failure (2014) · cites this paper as Steel & König, 2006
In the citing paper
“goal setting should always be accompanied by dividing long-term goals into subgoals since this helps the individual with issues related to time management (Steel & König, 2006), particularly in terms of goals that involve considerable effort.”
From Understanding and Treating Procrastination: A Review of a Common Self-Regulatory Failure (2014) · cites this paper as Steel & König, 2006
In the citing paper
“TMT is proposed by Steel and König (2006) as an integrated account of motivation that may facilitate an understanding of procrastination, particularly for those individuals who struggle to apprehend and cope with their behavioral problems.”
From Understanding and Treating Procrastination: A Review of a Common Self-Regulatory Failure (2014) · cites this paper as Steel and König (2006)
In the citing paper
“For example, according to the Temporal Motivation Theory (TMT; Steel and König, 2006; Gröpel and Steel, 2008), motivation increases as a function of the expectancy of an outcome and the size or value of a goal, but decreases as the time span before this outcome lengthens and impulsiveness increases.”
From How Study Environments Foster Academic Procrastination: Overview and Recommendations (2020) · cites this paper as Steel and König, 2006
In the citing paper
“The higher expectancy and value, and the lower delay and impulsiveness, the more likely a person is to engage in and execute a task or activity.”
From Group cognitive behavioral therapy for reducing procrastination in college students: a randomized controlled trial (2026) · cites this paper as Steel & König, 2006
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“The model in Figure 1 has its origins with Vroom (1964), with further developments and refinements by Porter and Lawler (1968); Riedel, Nebeker, and Copper (1988); and Steel and Konig (2006).”
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“…suggests that individuals are more likely to procrastinate when they perceive the goal to be distant and when there is a longer time before the deadline; therefore, procrastination behavior is closely related to incorrect time estimation (Song et al., 2015; Steel & Konig, 2006Steep & Konig, 2006).”
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“…that procrastination is influenced by three main factors: the perceived likelihood of completing a task, the expected value or enjoyment derived from the task, and the delay of meaningful rewards or consequences associated with task completion (Netzer Turgeman & Pollak, 2023; Steel & König, 2006).”
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“This situation detracts the progress of the field, which reduces the practical application of the outcomes (Steel & Konig, 2006; Wilson, 1998).”
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“…determinada asignatura es la que incentiva la motivación de los estudiantes, experimentan un deseo por obtener resultados en un tiempo determinado (Steel & König, 2006); la motivación está ligada directamente con el rendimiento académico, y la percepción estudiantil sobre determinados cursos los…”
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“…have studied individuals’ temporal ordering of tasks and underlying psychological mechanisms from various perspectives, including prospective memory (Ellis and Freeman 2008), temporal motivational theory (Steel and König 2006), procrastination (Steel 2007), and CLT (Trope and Liberman 2003, 2010).”
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“The agent behavioral decision setup: the benchmarking procedure In line with Steel and König (2006) and Pepper and Gore (2012) we propose an extended version of the von Neumann and Morgenstern (1947) expected utility model able to embrace the ideas of prospect theory.”
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Managing Selection and Retention of Employees A Case Study on Länsförsäkringar Bergslagen
Quader, K., & Sisi, J. (2011) · DiVA (Mälardalen University College) · Cited by 1
Goal-Setting Training and Self-Regulation: A Treatment for Procrastination
Morin, C. (2013) · Libraries and Cultural Resources (University of Calgary) · doi:10.5072/prism/26312 · Cited by 1
Learning Graspability of Unknown Objects via Intrinsic Motivation.
Temel, E., Grzyb, B. J., & Sarıel, S. (2014) · Istanbul Technical University Academic Open Archive (Istanbul Technical University) · Cited by 1
Employee perceptions of self-employment
Gongxeka, V. (2012) · Nelson Mandela University Research Repository · Cited by 1
Urs, L. (2017) · University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy (University of Minnesota) · Cited by 1
Nheta, D. S. (2020) · Cited by 1
Schmidt, A. M., Beck, J. W., & Gillespie, J. Z. (2012) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118133880.hop212013 · Cited by 1
Entrepreneurial Identity Development Among Faculty Members in a STEM Higher Education InstitutionPreprint
Yetisen, A. K. (2024) · SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/uyrv5 · Cited by 2
Işıkgöz, M. E. (2024) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4444166/v1 · Cited by 2
The ADHD Effort Paradox: Lagun’s Law Models Structural Effort RegulationPreprint
Lagun, N. (2025) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-7162397/v1 · Cited by 1
Commentary on Jauk et al. (2025)
Dufner, M., Schliebener, M., & Heine, C. (2025) · Zeitschrift für Klinische Psychologie und Psychotherapie · doi:10.1026/1616-3443/a000823 · Cited by 1
AI Usage as a Mediator Between Study Habits, Academic Procrastination, and Academic Self-EsteemPreprint
Chakraborty, D., & Subramani, D. (2026) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-9043305/v1 · Cited by 1
From distraction to delay: Unpacking academic procrastination
Fabio, R. A., Ricciardello, M., & Picciotto, G. (2026) · Europe’s Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5964/ejop.19203
“The present study aimed to integrate multiple psychological and cognitive predictors of academic procrastination within a unified model informed by motivational principles derived from Temporal Motivation Theory (TMT; Steel & König, 2006).”
InfluentialAdicción a redes sociales y procrastinación académica en estudiantes universitarios de Lima
Lunahuana Rosales, M. A. (2025) · Universidad Científica del Sur · doi:10.21142/tm.2023.3494
“Asimismo, propuestas más actuales (Steel & König; 2006; Steel, 2007) consideran al tiempo como un factor clave en la procrastinación.”
Employee perceptions and entrepreneurial intentions
Farrington, S. M., Sharp, G. D., & Gongxeka, V. (2013) · Nelson Mandela University Research Repository
Examining the Motivation to Work Within a Group of Gardeners with Mental Disorders
Pereira, E. M., & Machado, C. F. D. S. C. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-06376-8_11
Product and market roll-out decisions for new venture survival and growth
Douglas, E. J., & Nuttavuthisit, K. (2024) · Swinburne figshare (Swinburne University of Technology) · doi:10.25916/sut.26294395
Bridgeforth, B. W. (2009) · ScholarWorks (Walden University)
Erat, A. M. (2013) · edoc (University of Basel) · doi:10.5451/unibas-006182986
Beck, J. W. (2012) · University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy (University of Minnesota)
Mitchell, W. T. (2008) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1197445
“…monetary reward offered (valence), (2) belief that they will actually receive the reward if they qualify (instrumentality), and (3) belief that their efforts will result in a performance level that qualifies for the reward (expectancy) (Van Eerde et al. 1996; Isaac et al. 2001; Steel et al. 2006).”
BackgroundA Romanian approach of the program "Employee of the month"
Armean, B., Băleanu, V., & Irimie, S. I. (2012) · Munich Personal RePEc Archive (Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich)
Toward the use of internal marketing in networks
Bach, C., Sarkis, J., & Zhang, J. (2008) · International Journal of Business Excellence · doi:10.1504/ijbex.2009.021589
de Ybarra, J. L. L. S. (2014) · RACO (Revistes Catalanes amb Accés Obert) (Consorci de Serveis Universitaris de Catalunya) · doi:10.6035/198
“Un esfuerzo similar al de ELM ha comenzado a hacerse en el otro gran campo psicológico: el motivacionismo (Steel y Konig, 2006) uniendo piconomía, teoría de la expectativa, teoría de la acumulación y teoría de las necesidades.”
BackgroundAn Actor-Oriented Model of a Service Provision
Tackenberg, S. M., Duckwitz, S., & Schlick, C. M. (2015) · RWTH Publications (RWTH Aachen) · doi:10.18417/emisa.7.1.4
The Equity-Equality Conflict—Dilemmas in the Management of Reward Systems
Scheuer, S. (2013) · Journal of Management and Sustainability · doi:10.5539/jms.v3n3p158
“…debate between (psychological) intrinsic motivation theories and (economic) extrinsic or incentive theories is still very much alive (Deci 1975, Deci & Ryan 1985, Frey 1998, 2002, Lawler 2000, Ryan & Deci 2000), while some have attempted to integrate the two perspectives (e.g. Steel & König 2006).”
BackgroundAsamoah-Barnieh, R. (2015) · Libraries and Cultural Resources (University of Calgary) · doi:10.11575/prism/28578
Engaged teams through goal setting
Kerkhof, R. R., & van de (2013) · TU/e Research Portal
Metadata
- Authors
- Steel, P., & König, C. J.
- Affiliations
- University of Calgary (CA)
- Venue
- Academy of Management Review
- Publisher
- Academy of Management
- Published
- 2006-10
- Volume
- 31
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 889-913
- ISSN
- 0363-7425 (ISSN-L)
- 1930-3807
- OpenAlex
- W2171935043
- Cited by
- 776
- References
- 194
- Citations by year
- 2026: 77 · 2025: 72 · 2024: 54 · 2023: 51 · 2022: 41 · 2021: 50 · 2020: 46 · 2019: 38 · 2018: 34 · 2017: 38 · 2016: 46 · 2015: 32 · 2014: 41 · 2013: 30 · 2012: 39
- FWCI
- 22.70
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Academy of Management Review (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Human Behavior and Motivation
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management › Employee Performance and Motivation
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Keywords
- motivation theories, expectancy theory, cumulative prospect theory, needs theory, theoretical integration, human behavior, psychobiology, behaviorism, group behavior, job design, stock market behavior, goal setting
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