The DOI matches its Crossref record; 189 of the 194 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Integrating Theories of Motivation
Abstract
Progress toward understanding human behavior has been hindered by discipline-bound theories, dividing our efforts. Fortunately, these separate endeavors are converging and can be effectively integrated. Focusing on the fundamental features of picoeconomics, expectancy theory, cumulative prospect theory, and need theory, we construct a temporal motivational theory (TMT). TMT appears consistent with the major findings from many other investigations, including psychobiology and behaviorism. The potential implications of TMT are numerous, affecting our understanding on a wide range of topics, including group behavior, job design, stock market behavior, and goal setting.
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In the citing paper
“Temporal motivational theory is proposed as an integrated explanation for procrastination, consisting of the interaction of four different variables: expectancy, value, impulsiveness, and time, each of which affects the tendency to procrastinate.”
From Understanding and Treating Procrastination: A Review of a Common Self-Regulatory Failure (2014) · cites this paper as Steel & König, 2006
In the citing paper
“Steel and König (2006) therefore proposed a general model of motivation that incorporates a variety of aspects believed to affect decision-making processes: temporal motivational theory (TMT).”
From Understanding and Treating Procrastination: A Review of a Common Self-Regulatory Failure (2014) · cites this paper as Steel & König, 2006
In the citing paper
“In particular, planning fallacy and future discounting are assumed to be related to procrastination, for they result in poor time management and the inability to learn from past difficulties faced in tasks and assignments, as well as the propensity to choose those activities that result in immediate gratification instead of future rewards (Steel & König, 2006).”
From Understanding and Treating Procrastination: A Review of a Common Self-Regulatory Failure (2014) · cites this paper as Steel & König, 2006
In the citing paper
“goal setting should always be accompanied by dividing long-term goals into subgoals since this helps the individual with issues related to time management (Steel & König, 2006), particularly in terms of goals that involve considerable effort.”
From Understanding and Treating Procrastination: A Review of a Common Self-Regulatory Failure (2014) · cites this paper as Steel & König, 2006
In the citing paper
“TMT is proposed by Steel and König (2006) as an integrated account of motivation that may facilitate an understanding of procrastination, particularly for those individuals who struggle to apprehend and cope with their behavioral problems.”
From Understanding and Treating Procrastination: A Review of a Common Self-Regulatory Failure (2014) · cites this paper as Steel and König (2006)
In the citing paper
“For example, according to the Temporal Motivation Theory (TMT; Steel and König, 2006; Gröpel and Steel, 2008), motivation increases as a function of the expectancy of an outcome and the size or value of a goal, but decreases as the time span before this outcome lengthens and impulsiveness increases.”
From How Study Environments Foster Academic Procrastination: Overview and Recommendations (2020) · cites this paper as Steel and König, 2006
In the citing paper
“The higher expectancy and value, and the lower delay and impulsiveness, the more likely a person is to engage in and execute a task or activity.”
From Group cognitive behavioral therapy for reducing procrastination in college students: a randomized controlled trial (2026) · cites this paper as Steel & König, 2006
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“The researchers also indicated that the TMT theory is not only crucial for individuals but also for groups [1].”
Chen, Z., Ren, Z., Li, W., Huo, Z., Wang, Z., Liu, Y., Hu, B., Chen, W., Xu, T., Leonov, A., et al. (2026) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.108241.2.sa3
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“Similarly, Goal Seeking (GS) reinforces the instrumental role of future orientation, supporting temporal motivation theory (Steel & König, 2006): individuals who anchor their lives on clear, future-oriented goals are more likely to perceive investment as a strategic means of goal attainment.”
Chen, Z., Ren, Z., Li, W., Huo, Z., Wang, Z., Liu, Y., Hu, B., Chen, W., Xu, T., Leonov, A., et al. (2025) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.108241 · Cited by 1
“This theory suggests that individuals would procrastinate as task utility is devalued in the far future (Steel & König, 2006).”
Dąbrowa, N. (2025) · Acta Humanitatis. · doi:10.5709/ah-03.03.2025-03 · Cited by 2
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“theory is a theoretical model that explain the motivation which includes time as a fundamental term (Steel and König, 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialStrategies, factors and mechanisms for achieving personal goals
Vasyov, R. V. (2025) · Russian Journal of Education and Psychology · doi:10.12731/2658-4034-2025-16-3-734
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“Our work extends this by examining micro-level procrastination behaviors– delays in accessing exercises during instructional time–which may indicate cognitive overload or comprehension difficulties [39, 43].”
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“The effects of procrastination on academic achievement can be explained using Temporal Motivation Theory (TMT) by Steel and König (2006).”
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“No single theory can sufficiently explain all observable motivational phenomena (Steel & König, 2006, pp. 889–913).”
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“Procrastination can be understood as a failure of self-regulation and explained by the interplay of four variables: the value associated with completing an activity, the expectation to achieve that value, the time remaining to reach the desired value, and level of impulsiveness (8).”
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“In contrast, contemporary models such as the Mood Repair Hypothesis (Pychyl & Sirois, 2016) and the Temporal Motivation Theory (Steel & König, 2006) conceptualize procrastination as an emotion-regulation strategy or a motivational failure driven by temporal discounting.”
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“Individuals with low self-ef fi cacy anticipate a low probability of success and a high risk of failure, which ampli fi es distress (e.g., anxiety and frustration) and reduces intention to engage, thereby increasing fast-varying, task-speci fi c procrastination [16].”
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“Even though Temporal Motivation Theory (Steel & König, 2006) and the hypothesis on temporal mood repair (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013) have mostly been considered as opposing in the research field, we argue that they are complementary rather than competing (see also Gross et al., 2024; Zhang et al.,…”
InfluentialChen, Z., Ren, Z., Li, W., Huo, Z., Wang, Z., Liu, Y., Hu, B., Chen, W., Xu, T., Leonov, A., et al. (2026) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.108241.3
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“Temporal motivation theory suggests that procrastination is related to expectancy, task value, impulsiveness, and delay (Steel and König, 2006), and it has also been conceptualized as a form of self-regulatory failure and short-term mood regulation (Steel, 2007; Sirois and Pychyl, 2013).”
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“Behavioral theories in psychology and classic economics consider extrinsic motivation (e.g., reward) as the main mechanism for motivation and performance improvement (Eisenberger and Cameron, 1996; Skinner, 1953; Steel and König, 2006; Steel and Weinhardt, 2018; Vroom, 1964).”
Self-citationHu, L., Cao, E., & Hu, W. (2026) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2026.2691902
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“This pattern is consistent with the theoretical account offered by Rotter (1966) and elaborated by Steel and König (2006): external locus of control weakens the perceived contingency between personal effort and outcomes, which in turn undermines beliefs about personal efficacy, reducing the…”
InfluentialHuang, L., Yan, M., Sun, W., Dai, L., Gou, Y., Li, T., Duan, Y., Shi, L., & Liu, D. (2026) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2026.1842996
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Goal Characteristics Questionnaire – Measuring Goals That Predict Motivation and Well-Being
Iwama, G. Y., Weber, F., Wirzberger, M., Prentice, M., & Lieder, F. (2026) · Psychological Test Adaptation and Development · doi:10.1027/2698-1866/a000146
Yan, H., Sun, C., Li, Z., & Guo, Z. (2026) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su18199821
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“No CRS work has drawn on self-determination theory [50], Maslow’s hierarchy [33, 34], or any structured psychological account of human motivation [44, 52, 59, 60, 63].”
Oblitas, T. F., Cunza-Aranzábal, D. F., & Abanto-Ramírez, C. D. (2026) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2026.107912
Sherf, E. N., Lee, M. Y., & McElroy, T. (2026) · Academy of Management Annals · doi:10.5465/annals.2025.0064
Suriano, R. (2026) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci16101637
Garg, A., & Schooler, J. W. (2026) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs16101832
“Delay may also depend on the perceived value and temporal distance of task outcomes (Steel & König, 2006), and on the balance between a task’s immediate aversiveness and its anticipated utility (Zhang & Feng, 2020).”
Humour in managerial computer-mediated requests: task-contingent effects on employee compliance
Katz, A., & Brender‐Ilan, Y. (2026) · Journal of Communication Management · doi:10.1108/jcom-03-2026-0136
Yin, B., Xiong, J., & Hua, G. (2026) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-10911634/v1
Uras, M. C. (2026) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs16101912
“Temporal motivation theory offers a possible explanation by considering how expected success and task value interact with the timing of rewards and action (Steel & König, 2006).”
Coșa, L. E., & Trifan, I.-M. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1963771
Jannat, T., Hosen, M., Haque, A., Saputri, F. Y., Lim, S., & Arefin, M. S. (2026) · Ethics & Behavior · doi:10.1080/10508422.2026.2744703
Gee, P. (2014) · The University of Queensland · doi:10.14264/uql.2015.824
A Rational Framework for Student Interactions with Collaborative Educational Systems
Atkisson, C. J., & Brent, E. E. (2011) · Studies in computational intelligence · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-19814-4_4
Factors that drive and shape parents' expectations of teachers
Minnaar, L., & Heystek, J. (2012) · SUNScholar (Stellenbosch University)
Metadata
- Authors
- Steel, P., & König, C. J.
- Affiliations
- University of Calgary (CA)
- Venue
- Academy of Management Review
- Publisher
- Academy of Management
- Published
- 2006-10
- Volume
- 31
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 889-913
- ISSN
- 0363-7425 (ISSN-L)
- 1930-3807
- OpenAlex
- W2171935043
- Cited by
- 776
- References
- 194
- Citations by year
- 2026: 77 · 2025: 72 · 2024: 54 · 2023: 51 · 2022: 41 · 2021: 50 · 2020: 46 · 2019: 38 · 2018: 34 · 2017: 38 · 2016: 46 · 2015: 32 · 2014: 41 · 2013: 30 · 2012: 39
- FWCI
- 22.70
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Academy of Management Review (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Human Behavior and Motivation
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management › Employee Performance and Motivation
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Keywords
- motivation theories, expectancy theory, cumulative prospect theory, needs theory, theoretical integration, human behavior, psychobiology, behaviorism, group behavior, job design, stock market behavior, goal setting
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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