Integrating Theories of Motivation

“Steel and König (2006) and Wilson (1998) called for the use of consilience, which is the linking of facts and CARSRUD AND BRÄNNBACK 11 fact-based theory across disciplines to create a common framework between these two schools.”

“Fourth, cumulative prospect theory (Tversky and Kahneman 1992), one of the leading theories of decision (Steel and Konig 2006), posits that people derive values from gains and losses by following different functions.”

“Steel and Konig (2006) argue that perceived feasibility aligns with expectancy and perceived desirability aligns with valence.”

“In this respect, we would also like to point to Steel and Konig's (2006)”

“In a second development, Steel & Konig (2006) combined the insights of cumulative prospect theory and the notion of hyperbolic discounting from behavioral decision theory with classic expectancy theory and need theory formulations.”

“Therefore, it is the combined influence of both the elements that would generate the intention (Steel & König, 2006).”

“Most modern theories define motivation as the process that shapes the intensity, direction and persistence of effort that a person allocates toward achieving a particular goal or desired end state [105–111].”

“…core decision attributes are the foundational elements of the family of expectancy value-based motivational theories (Ajzen, 1991; Bandura, 1997; Steel & Konig, 2006; Vroom, 1964), which are frequently investigated as a foundation of entrepreneurial decision making (e.g., Douglas & Shepherd,…”

“Steel and König have emphasized the importance of consilience in theory development, arguing that “if a theory can be shown to have consilience, its scientific validity is vastly improved, since it represents different avenues of inquiry coming to similar conclusions” (Steel & König, 2006: 889).”

“The answer may be found in the motivational literature (e.g., Steel and Konig 2006), in that many operational managers have some or all of their performance evaluation tied to traditional operational outcomes such as costs and/or productivity.”

“Learning theory is also used to understand procrastination and is included in several motivational theories (Steel & König, 2006).”

“Keywords: self-regulation, self-efficacy, expectancy, motivation, goals The field of motivation is seeing a resurging interest in creating integrated, comprehensive theories of motivation and human behavior (e.g., Bandura, 2005; Carver & Scheier, 1998; Locke & Latham, 2004; Steel & Konig, 2006).”

“Second, EVC increases the greater expectancy , or perceived likelihood, that one will be able to bring a given outcome about through self-control [192; 23; 180; cf. ‘self-efficacy’ in Social Cognitive Theory, 15].”

“Since the theoretical constructs of expectancy and selfefficacy have similarities (Bandura 1977; Steel and Konig 2006), such measurement overlap is justifiable.”

“Though students assigned term papers may intend to start their papers early, many competing factors play into whether they actually do, including impulsiveness, task aversiveness, desire for good grades, desire to socialize, self efficacy, and their like or dislike of writing (Steel & König, 2006).”

“Steel and Konig (2006), for example, argued that individuals separate attributes of a task into gains (e.”

“However, work in psychology and cognitive science shows that people base their actions not on a single long-term goal, but instead on series of goals at different time scales [10,14,37,38].”

“In particular, although Steel and König (2006) acknowledged the likely temporal variability in expectancy and valence, the formal representation of TMT only explicitly incorporates dynamics by dividing the expectancy-value product by the time to deadline.”

“Indeed, a recent theory, called temporal-motivation theory (Steel & König, 2006), proposes goal setting (Locke & Latham, 2002) as an important component of procrastination tendencies, but much of the existing research on individual differences in procrastination has focused on specifying…”

“There are multiple theoretical perspectives that address employee motivation (e.g., see Locke and Latham, 2004; Steel and Konig, 2006).”

“Setting more specific subgoals increases the utility of action by reducing the delay of rewards (Steel & König, 2006).”

“, Vroom 1964), a leading cognitive theory of motivation (Steel and König 2006), to argue a link between instrumental support and entrepreneurial persistence.”

“Then, they pursue the action that provides the maximum value of the two components multiplied (Steel & Konig, 2006).”

“In this study, we examine how procrastination manifests over time, employing the lens of temporal motivation theory (Steel and König, 2006).”

“…and has been linked to procrastination and dawdling in the workplace, such that employees may allocate their time toward smaller, more immediate rewards (e.g., surfing the Internet and checking Facebook) rather than important long-term goals such as training (Steel, 2007; Steel & König, 2006).”

“To further justify these links we draw from expectancy theory (Steel and Konig, 2006; Vroom, 1964).”

“Since the theoretical constructs of expectancy and self-efficacy have similarities (Bandura 1977; Steel and Konig 2006), item Qk1a has also been used in a validated scale measuring entrepreneurial self-efficacy by Cassar and Friedman (2009).”

“Steel and König (2006) proposed Temporal Motivation Theory (TMT) as an integrative theoretical framework in which they proposed that time plays an important role in motivational processes.”

“For example, according to the Temporal Motivation Theory (TMT; Steel and König, 2006; Gröpel and Steel, 2008), motivation increases as a function of the expectancy of an outcome and the size or value of a goal, but decreases as the time span before this outcome lengthens and impulsiveness increases.”

“…of different potential causal factors identified in relation to procrastination such as temporal discounting (Pychyl, Lee, Thibodeau, & Blunt, 2000; Steel & Konig, 2006), task aversiveness (e.g., Blunt & Pychyl, 2000; Lay, 1992), fear of failure (e.g., Schouwenburg, 1992), self-handicapping (e.g.,…”

“Previous studies have acknowledged the relevance of time perspectives in the domains of organizational psychology (Sonnentag, 2012) and work design (Steel & Konig, 2006).”

“And the earlier an experience occurs, the more decision weight it receives, as a great deal of research has shown (e.g., Frederick, Loewenstein, & O'Donoghue, 2002; Steel & König, 2006).”

“Second, FTP is an important antecedent of motivation and (proactive) behaviour (e.g., Carstensen, 2006; Joireman, Shaffer, Balliet, & Strathman, 2012; Steel & König, 2006; Strauss, Griffin, & Parker, 2012), and thus likely to influence job crafting behaviour.”

“Similarly, Temporal Motivation Theory outlines how temporal framing of the rewards expected from engaging in a task can motivate decisions to procrastinate (Steel & Konig, 2006).”

“R framework, TPB, and DMH. Steel and König (2006) argued that synthesizing different theories into a comprehensive model may be beneficial for the following reasons: (1) a single theory is not able to explain the whole phenomena; (2) it can deal with more realistic situations; (3) it is possible to approach problems…”

“…and procrastination is minimized, the self-regulation literature has theorized and demonstrated the effectiveness of cognitive self-regulatory mechanisms such as prioritizing, deadline-setting, and implementation intentions (Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006; Lord et al., 2010; P. Steel & König, 2006).”

“Indeed, too strong a specialist focus hinders the development of any “bigger picture” (e.g., Ellemers, 2013; Steel & Konig, 2006; Van Zomeren, in press).”

“The disenfranchised minority members are likely to be more radicalized, particularly when their losses loom larger than the majority's gains (Kahneman & Tversky, 1979; Steel & König, 2006).”

“Two notable exceptions are the works of Schmidt and Vancouver (see also Forster et al., 2007; Steel & Konig, 2006 for integration in single-goal contexts).”

“The mental representation of the external environment affects OME perceptions of venture potential and consequently, influences the desire to persist (Hayward et al., 2006; Steel and König, 2006).”

“Early procrastination theories, such as the expected value theory (Wigfield and Eccles, 2000), the Temporal Motivation Theory (TMT) (Steel and Konig, 2006), and the time-oriented twodimensional model (Strunk et al., 2013), attached importance to the effect of self-efficacy as a motivational factor on procrastination b…”

“…to play an important role in the effective management of goals and subgoals (Miyake & Friedman, 2012), which in turn has been theorized to be crucial for successfully avoiding procrastination (e.g., Gropel & Steel, 2008; Gustavson et al., 2014; Krause & Freund, 2013; Steel & Konig, 2006).”

“Expectation theories investigate and explain why individuals make choices between various courses of action (Steel and Konig, 2006).”

“Entrepreneurship could become indebted to the recent work of Steel and Konig (2006) on motivation.”

“in the general literature on decision-making; it has been observed for individuals (92), groups (93, 94), organizations (95), and political bodies (96).”

“Recent theoretical accounts, for example, have suggested that various aspects of goal management, such as goal setting (Steel & König, 2006) and goal focus (Krause & Freund, 2014a), may influence procrastination.”

“This corresponds with the findings of positive effects of deadlines (Fried & Slowik, 2004; Steel & Konig, 2006).”

“Although different terminologies have been used, perceived feasibility from the entrepreneurial intention models is indeed analogous to expectancy from Vroom ’ s expectancy framework and desirability aligns with valence (Steel and Konig 2006).”

“Moreover, the perceived desirability of the entrepreneurial actions will act as a proxy of the valence associated with the results (Steel and Konig 2006; Fitzsimmons and Douglas 2011).”

“Time discounting is a critical component in motivated behavior and the phenomenon is supported by psychobiological findings ( Steel & Konig, 2006 ).”

“For example, endings may be implied rather than precise (Albert, 2013), or theymaybe explicit but toodistant to meaningfully shape present behavior (“not urgent” [Steel & König, 2006]).”

“In addition, some scholars have developed integrative perspectives and models that bring together multiple motivation theories (Locke & Latham, 2004; Mitchell & Daniels, 2003; Steel & König, 2006).”

“Absent opportunism, the bounded reliability problem is not that reality turns out differently from prior expectations (which is a mere bounded rationality issue), but that individuals recurrently experience (benevolent) preference reversal over time, a wellknown phenomenon in psychology (Steel and König, 2006).”

“This research shows that people who focus on both types of goals perform better than those who focus on distal goals alone (Bandura, 1997; Latham and Seijts, 1999; Steel and König, 2006).”

“Because time is a crucial component for motivated behavior (Steel & Konig, 2006), CEOs in different seasons of their tenures likely apply differing temporal discount rates to future versus immediate rewards (Ainslie, 1992).”

“Expectancy-based theories are particularly useful in the examination of choice between alternative actions: it is argued that individuals are more likely to select the alternative that is most likely to maximize attractive outcomes (Steel and Konig, 2006).”

“However, although Steel (2010) and Rebetez et al.”

“Furthermore, the time pressure factors reduce the perceived delay between the action (innovating to exploit the opportunity) and the reward for this action, by this means substantively increasing the action’s perceived expected utility (Steel and Konig 2006).”