The DOI matches its Crossref record; 189 of the 194 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Integrating Theories of Motivation
Abstract
Progress toward understanding human behavior has been hindered by discipline-bound theories, dividing our efforts. Fortunately, these separate endeavors are converging and can be effectively integrated. Focusing on the fundamental features of picoeconomics, expectancy theory, cumulative prospect theory, and need theory, we construct a temporal motivational theory (TMT). TMT appears consistent with the major findings from many other investigations, including psychobiology and behaviorism. The potential implications of TMT are numerous, affecting our understanding on a wide range of topics, including group behavior, job design, stock market behavior, and goal setting.
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In the citing paper
“Temporal motivational theory is proposed as an integrated explanation for procrastination, consisting of the interaction of four different variables: expectancy, value, impulsiveness, and time, each of which affects the tendency to procrastinate.”
From Understanding and Treating Procrastination: A Review of a Common Self-Regulatory Failure (2014) · cites this paper as Steel & König, 2006
In the citing paper
“Steel and König (2006) therefore proposed a general model of motivation that incorporates a variety of aspects believed to affect decision-making processes: temporal motivational theory (TMT).”
From Understanding and Treating Procrastination: A Review of a Common Self-Regulatory Failure (2014) · cites this paper as Steel & König, 2006
In the citing paper
“In particular, planning fallacy and future discounting are assumed to be related to procrastination, for they result in poor time management and the inability to learn from past difficulties faced in tasks and assignments, as well as the propensity to choose those activities that result in immediate gratification instead of future rewards (Steel & König, 2006).”
From Understanding and Treating Procrastination: A Review of a Common Self-Regulatory Failure (2014) · cites this paper as Steel & König, 2006
In the citing paper
“goal setting should always be accompanied by dividing long-term goals into subgoals since this helps the individual with issues related to time management (Steel & König, 2006), particularly in terms of goals that involve considerable effort.”
From Understanding and Treating Procrastination: A Review of a Common Self-Regulatory Failure (2014) · cites this paper as Steel & König, 2006
In the citing paper
“TMT is proposed by Steel and König (2006) as an integrated account of motivation that may facilitate an understanding of procrastination, particularly for those individuals who struggle to apprehend and cope with their behavioral problems.”
From Understanding and Treating Procrastination: A Review of a Common Self-Regulatory Failure (2014) · cites this paper as Steel and König (2006)
In the citing paper
“For example, according to the Temporal Motivation Theory (TMT; Steel and König, 2006; Gröpel and Steel, 2008), motivation increases as a function of the expectancy of an outcome and the size or value of a goal, but decreases as the time span before this outcome lengthens and impulsiveness increases.”
From How Study Environments Foster Academic Procrastination: Overview and Recommendations (2020) · cites this paper as Steel and König, 2006
In the citing paper
“The higher expectancy and value, and the lower delay and impulsiveness, the more likely a person is to engage in and execute a task or activity.”
From Group cognitive behavioral therapy for reducing procrastination in college students: a randomized controlled trial (2026) · cites this paper as Steel & König, 2006
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Procrastination partly reflects an evolutionary byproduct of non-planning impulsivityPreprint
Hu, Y., Xiang, J., Jin, Y., Fan, Q., Wang, C., Wu, Y., Zheng, D., Hu, B., Feng, T., Zhou, Y., et al. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.07.21.665826 · Cited by 1
“According to this framework, the cognitive architecture underlying short-sighted goal pursuit, which prioritizes immediate over long-term outcomes, is thought to also underpin procrastination (42 – 44).”
Behavioral Insights into Financial Planning: A Gradualism Approach to Will-Making
Mugerman, Y., & Winter, E. (2025) · Quarterly Journal of Finance · doi:10.1142/s2010139225400051
Metadata
- Authors
- Steel, P., & König, C. J.
- Affiliations
- University of Calgary (CA)
- Venue
- Academy of Management Review
- Publisher
- Academy of Management
- Published
- 2006-10
- Volume
- 31
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 889-913
- ISSN
- 0363-7425 (ISSN-L)
- 1930-3807
- OpenAlex
- W2171935043
- Cited by
- 776
- References
- 194
- Citations by year
- 2026: 77 · 2025: 72 · 2024: 54 · 2023: 51 · 2022: 41 · 2021: 50 · 2020: 46 · 2019: 38 · 2018: 34 · 2017: 38 · 2016: 46 · 2015: 32 · 2014: 41 · 2013: 30 · 2012: 39
- FWCI
- 22.70
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Academy of Management Review (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Human Behavior and Motivation
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management › Employee Performance and Motivation
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Keywords
- motivation theories, expectancy theory, cumulative prospect theory, needs theory, theoretical integration, human behavior, psychobiology, behaviorism, group behavior, job design, stock market behavior, goal setting
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