Police-Community Relations in Cincinnati

The rate of use-of-force incidents per arrest in Cincinnati has remained constant since 2005 at approximately 14 uses of force per 1,000 arrests.

“The rate of use-of-force incidents per arrest has remained constant since 2005: approximately 14 uses of force per 1,000 arrests.”

Overall, crime, associated enforcement activities, and calls for service remained highly clustered in specific portions of Cincinnati.

“Overall, crime, the associated enforcement activities, and calls for service remained highly clustered in specific portions of the city.”

Blacks and whites in Cincinnati experience differences in policing.

“While we do observe improvements in a number of areas, blacks and whites in Cincinnati experience differences in policing.”

Overall crime rates in Cincinnati have declined citywide by 9 percent since 2005.

“Overall crime rates have declined citywide by 9 percent since 2005.”

The perception of racial profiling among Cincinnati's black residents is on the decline.

“the perception of racial profiling is on the decline.”

Racial differences in search rates and durations of traffic stops observed for 2003-2005 did not occur in 2006 and 2007 when comparing stops of black drivers to stops of similarly situated nonblack drivers.

“We also found that, when comparing stops of black drivers to stops of similarly situated nonblack drivers, racial differences in search rates and the durations of traffic stops that we observed for 2003-2005 did not occur in 2006 and 2007.”

Downtown Cincinnati experienced a 31-percent decrease in crime since 2005.

“Downtown and Over-the-Rhine continue to post large reductions in crime, a 31-percent decrease in downtown and a 37-decrease in Over-the-Rhine since 2005.”

Over-the-Rhine experienced a 37-percent decrease in crime since 2005.

“Downtown and Over-the-Rhine continue to post large reductions in crime, a 31-percent decrease in downtown and a 37-decrease in Over-the-Rhine since 2005.”

Fairview experienced a 20-percent increase in crime since 2005.

“Some areas experienced increases; Fairview, just north of Over-the-Rhine, experienced a 20-percent increase in the same period.”

Cincinnati's black residents' level of trust in the police is still significantly below that of white residents.

“although their level of trust in the police is still significantly 1 below that of white residents.”

Cincinnati's black residents reported improvements in perceived police professionalism.

“Cincinnati's black residents reported improvements in perceived police professionalism”

The communication of CPD officers during traffic stops improved.

“Finally, we observe some improvement in the communication of CPD officers during traffic stops.”

Cincinnati's black residents believe that police often use race in deciding their course of action.

“Although the city's black residents believe that police often use race in deciding their course of action”

Officers tended to have more-favorable opinions of the investigation than complainants did.

“Officers tended to have more-favorable opinions of the investigation than complainants did.”

The communication quality of CPD officers improved between 2005 and 2007.

“In addition to these findings, we found one significant difference over time that is unrelated to the race of the officer or driver: The communication quality of CPD officers has improved between 2005 and 2007.”

Black drivers received citations less frequently than did similarly situated nonblack drivers (57 percent compared with 61 percent in 2007).

“Table S.4 shows that black drivers received citations less frequently than did similarly situated nonblack drivers (57 percent, compared with 61 percent in 2007).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Nonblack drivers stopped in similar locations, at similar times, and for similar reasons as black drivers are an appropriate comparison group for assessing racial bias in post-stop outcomes.

We found no evidence that the police systematically or deliberately treat blacks differently.

“While we found no evidence that the police systematically or deliberately treat blacks differently”

Blacks nevertheless experience a different kind of policing from that experienced by whites.

“blacks nevertheless experience a different kind of policing from that experienced by whites.”

There is significant evidence of more-intensive policing of black motorists by white officers than by black officers.

“We continue to find significant evidence of more-intensive policing of black motorists by white officers than by black officers.”

Each year, the analysis flagged three to five CPD officers with a disproportionate fraction of stops of black drivers.

“While we found no evidence of a department-wide practice of disproportionately stopping black drivers, each year, our analysis flagged three to five officers with a disproportionate fraction of stops of black drivers.”

These developments have produced evidence of small but positive changes in the community's perception of the department.

“These developments have produced evidence of small but positive changes in the community's perception of the department.”

Black respondents reported greater perceived police professionalism in 2008 than in 2005.

“Black respondents reported greater perceived police professionalism in 2008 than in 2005.”

• Also stated in: § Police-Community Satisfaction Survey Overview · plain

  “Black respondents reported greater perceived police professionalism in 2008 than in 2005.”

Combining across all five years, the accumulated data show no evidence of a racial bias in the decision to stop.

“Combining across all five years indicates that the accumulated data show no evidence of a racial bias in the decision to stop.”

Survey respondents from Over-the-Rhine reported that they perceive greater professionalism from CPD in 2008 than they did in 2005.

“In spite of this approach, survey respondents from the Over-the-Rhine neighborhood reported that they perceive greater professionalism from CPD in 2008 than they did in 2005.”

Between 2003 and 2005, CPD officers were more likely to search black drivers than similarly situated nonblack drivers.

“Between 2003 and 2005, we found that CPD officers were more likely to search black drivers than similarly situated nonblack drivers (see Table S.5).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Nonblack drivers stopped in similar locations, at similar times, and for similar reasons as black drivers are an appropriate comparison group for assessing racial bias in post-stop outcomes.

Vortex officers were more likely to stop vehicles with black drivers than were other non-Vortex officers patrolling at the same times and places (71 percent versus 65 percent).

“Our 2006 analysis of this group's practices (Schell et al., 2007, pp. 46-48) found that Vortex officers were more likely to stop vehicles with black drivers than were other non-Vortex officers patrolling at the same times and places (71 percent versus 65 percent).”

• cites Schell et al., 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Officers generally felt that proactively stopping cars and 'checking people out' were components of good police work.

“Officers generally felt that proactively stopping cars and”

Every year, our analysis flags three to five officers who stop a disproportionately high number of black drivers relative to other officers patrolling in the same times, places, and contexts.

“Every year, our analysis flags three to five officers who stop a disproportionately high number of black drivers relative to other officers patrolling in the same times, places, and contexts.”

The overwhelming majority of officers who responded to the survey believe that residents' input is critical to solving neighborhood problems.

“For example, the overwhelming majority of officers who responded to the survey believe that residents' input is critical to solving neighborhood problems.”

When comparing all stops of black and nonblack drivers, stops of black drivers take longer on average.

“When comparing all stops of black and nonblack drivers, the stops of black drivers take longer on average and black drivers are more likely to be searched.”

Black and nonblack drivers had an almost equal chance of having a stop last more than 20 minutes (9 percent for black drivers and 10 percent for similarly situated nonblack drivers).

“Similarly, we found that black and nonblack drivers had an almost equal chance of having a stop last more than 20 minutes (9 percent for black drivers and 10 percent for similarly situated nonblack drivers).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Nonblack drivers stopped in similar locations, at similar times, and for similar reasons as black drivers are an appropriate comparison group for assessing racial bias in post-stop outcomes.

In 2007, officers conducted 1,318 high-discretion searches of black drivers that recovered no contraband.

“Even though we found no racial disparities in the hit rates, officers conducted 1,318 high-discretion searches of black drivers in 2007 that recovered no contraband.”

The flagged officers were substantially more likely to have stops involving black drivers than similarly situated stops made by other officers.

“flagged officers were substantially more likely to have stops involving black drivers than the similarly situated stops made by other officers.”

Overall, black residents still maintain significantly more negative views of the police than white residents do.

“Overall, however, black residents still maintain significantly more negative views of the police than white residents do.”

Of the officers who responded to the survey, their responses to questions about good policing practices were generally consistent with the principles of community policing.

“Of the officers who responded to the survey, their responses to questions about good policing practices were generally consistent with the principles of community policing.”

Our analysis found no evidence of racial bias in traffic stops, such as in the decision to stop or in the decision to search.

“In addition, our analysis found no evidence of racial bias in traffic stops, such as in the decision to stop or in the decision to search.”

White officers were more likely than black officers to use proactive police tactics in incidents involving black drivers.

“and (2) white officers were more likely than black officers to use proactive police tactics in incidents involving black drivers.”

• Also stated in: § Conclusions · plain

  “An analysis of 325 randomly sampled video records revealed two key differences associated with the officers' and drivers' races: (1) Black drivers were more likely to experience proactive policing during the stop, resulting in longer stops that were significantly more likely to involve searches; and (b) white officers were more likely than black officers to use proactive police tactics in incident”

Officers were more satisfied with the complaint process and outcome than citizens were.

“Officers were more satisfied with the complaint process and outcome than citizens were.”

Additional analysis including stops from throughout the year yielded the same result as the DST-focused analysis.

“Additional analysis that included stops from throughout the year (rather than just those stops occurring near a change to or from DST) yielded the same result.”

These officers did not express a great deal of confidence that cooperation is likely.

“However, these officers did not express a great deal of confidence that cooperation is likely.”

Black residents are reporting greater perceived police professionalism than they had three years ago.

“Black residents are reporting greater perceived police professionalism than they had three years ago.”

When officers conducted high-discretion searches, they were equally likely to recover contraband from black and nonblack drivers.

“However, when officers conducted high-discretion searches, they were equally likely to recover contraband, such as weapons or drugs, from black and nonblack drivers (Table S. 6).”

Few officers (15 percent) reported being aware of the Community Police Partnering Center.

“Furthermore, few officers (15 percent) reported being aware of the Community Police Partnering Center.”

When comparing all stops of black and nonblack drivers, black drivers are more likely to be searched.

“When comparing all stops of black and nonblack drivers, the stops of black drivers take longer on average and black drivers are more likely to be searched.”

Based on a review of CAD records for June and December 2007, sheriff's deputies conducted an estimated 5,574 stops in 2007, all in District 1.

“Based on a review of CAD records for June and December 2007, we estimate that sheriff's deputies conducted 5,574 stops in 2007, all of which occurred in District 1.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The estimate of sheriff's deputies stops from June and December 2007 is representative of the entire year.

Over-the-Rhine does not have a disproportionate share of reported crimes or calls for service, as might be expected due to the high volume of arrests.

“Overthe-Rhine does not have a disproportionate share of reported crimes or calls for service, as might be expected due to the high volume of arrests.”

In 2007, CPD recorded 63,377 traffic stops in CAD.

“In 2007, CPD recorded 63,377 traffic stops in CAD.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: All traffic stops that CPD officers conducted appear in CAD.

Aggregating five years of data, from 2003 to 2007, there is no evidence of racial profiling in officers' decisions to stop drivers.

“Aggregating five years of data, from 2003 to 2007, we find no evidence of racial profiling in officers' decisions to stop drivers.”

• Also stated in: § Results · plain

  “Combining across all five years indicates that the accumulated data show no evidence of a racial bias in the decision to stop.”

• Also stated in: § Results · plain

  “Combining the analysis across all four years re inforces the conclusion of no racial bias in the decision to stop.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The racial composition of the driving population does not change between daylight and darkness around DST changes.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The kinds of drivers who commit offenses for which police make stops do not change between daylight and darkness around DST changes.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The patterns of police allocation do not change between daylight and darkness around DST changes.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: There is not a differential change in relative offending rates by race as daylight moves into nighttime.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The allocation of police effort does not suddenly change following the time change.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Drivers who are likely to offend during daylight are also likely to be the ones who offend at nighttime.

Such differences between CAD and contact cards are not observed in other districts.

“Such differences are not observed in other districts.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: All traffic stops that CPD officers conducted appear in CAD.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: All traffic stops that CPD officers conducted should have an associated contact card.

Overall crime rates declined by 9 percent since 2005.

“Overall crime rates declined by 9 percent since 2005.”

The races of the officers involved in incidents do not appear to differ for black and white subjects (p-value = 0.75).

“That is, the races of the officers involved in incidents do not appear to differ for black and white subjects (p-value = 0.75).”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The use-of-force records obtained by RAND are a complete inventory of use-of-force incidents.

Calls for service decreased in Cincinnati by 5 percent in 2007 compared with 2006.

“Calls for service decreased in Cincinnati by 5 percent in 2007 compared with 2006.”

Only I-75 exceeds the Over-the-Rhine neighborhood in the number of traffic stops.

“Only I-75 exceeds the Over-the-Rhine neighborhood in the number of traffic stops.”

In 61 percent of the use-of-force incidents involving black subjects, the officer was white.

“For example, in 61 percent of the use-of-force incidents involving black subjects, the officer was white.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The use-of-force records obtained by RAND are a complete inventory of use-of-force incidents.

The quality of traffic-stop data greatly improved over the study period.

“The quality of the traffic-stop data has greatly improved over the course of the study period.”

These neighborhoods also have the greatest demand for policing, as measured by calls for service and reports of crime.

“These neighborhoods also have the greatest demand for policing, as measured by calls for service and reports of crime.”

Black drivers were less likely to receive a citation than similarly situated nonblack drivers (57 percent versus 61 percent).

“Black drivers were less likely to receive a citation than similarly situated nonblack drivers (57 percent versus 61 percent).”

In 2007, there were 613 use-of-force incidents in Cincinnati.

“In 2007, there were 613 use-of-force incidents in Cincinnati.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The use-of-force records obtained by RAND are a complete inventory of use-of-force incidents.

ECDs continue to be the most commonly used form of force recorded, in 66 percent of use-of-force incidents.

“ECDs continue to be the most commonly used form of force recorded, in 66 percent of use-of-force incidents.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The use-of-force records obtained by RAND are a complete inventory of use-of-force incidents.

There was no racial difference in the percentage of stops lasting more than 20 minutes.

“Furthermore, there was no racial difference in the percentage of stops lasting more than 20 minutes.”

Critical stop features, such as driver's race and stop location, were rarely missing, less than 0.7 percent in 2007 compared to 7 percent in 2004.

“Critical stop features, such as driver's race and stop location, were rarely missing, less than 0.7 percent in 2007 compared to 7 percent in 2004.”

Patterns of calls for service, reported crime, arrests, and police use of force are geographically clustered in Cincinnati.

“As we noted in our previous reports, patterns of calls for service, reported crime, arrests, and police use of force are geographically clustered in Cincinnati.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The use-of-force records obtained by RAND are a complete inventory of use-of-force incidents.

The race of the officer involved in use-of-force incidents also appears to be unrelated to the subject's race.

“The race of the officer involved in use-of-force incidents also appears to be unrelated to the subject's race.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The use-of-force records obtained by RAND are a complete inventory of use-of-force incidents.

Citation and search rates varied widely across the neighborhoods-41 percent to 91 percent for citation rates and 2 percent to 32 percent for search rates.

“Citation and search rates varied widely across the neighborhoods-41 percent to 91 percent for citation rates and 2 percent to 32 percent for search rates.”

The largest share of arrests occurred in Over-the-Rhine, Central Business District (CBD)/Riverfront, and East Price Hill.

“The largest share of arrests occurred in Over-the-Rhine, Central Business District (CBD)/Riverfront, and East Price Hill.”

When targeted by an ECD, black and white subjects were equally likely to be targeted in drive-stun mode.

“When targeted by an ECD, black and white subjects were equally likely to be targeted in drive-stun mode.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The use-of-force records obtained by RAND are a complete inventory of use-of-force incidents.

Citywide, there were, on average, 14 use-of-force incidents per 1,000 arrests.

“Citywide, there were, on average, 14 use-of-force incidents per 1,000 arrests.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The use-of-force records obtained by RAND are a complete inventory of use-of-force incidents.

Black and similarly situated nonblack drivers had an equal chance of having a stop last less than 10 minutes (56 percent).

“Black and similarly situated nonblack drivers had an equal chance of having a stop last less than 10 minutes (56 percent).”

Crime in Fairview, just north of Over-the-Rhine, has increased by 20 percent since 2005.

“Crime in Fairview, just north of Over-the-Rhine, has increased by 20 percent since 2005.”

Our analysis of the video recordings of traffic stops consistently finds that white officers are more investigative of black motorists and passengers than are black officers.

“Our analysis of the video recordings of traffic stops consistently finds that white officers are more investigative of black motorists and passengers than are black officers.”

All six firearm discharges involved black subjects.

“All six involved black subjects.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The use-of-force records obtained by RAND are a complete inventory of use-of-force incidents.

Drive-stun mode accounts for 10 percent of the ECD usages.

“Drive-stun mode accounts for 10 percent of the ECD usages.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The use-of-force records obtained by RAND are a complete inventory of use-of-force incidents.

Three officers appear to be stopping significantly more black drivers than officers patrolling at the same times and places and in the same contexts.

“Three officers appear to be stopping significantly more black drivers than officers patrolling at the same times and places and in the same contexts.”

• Also stated in: § Results · hedged

  “Three officers were flagged as having a large probability of stopping a disproportionate percentage of black drivers (flagged officers 2, 3, and 4).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Officers patrolling the same areas at the same times will be exposed to the same offender population.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The officers being compared are on the same assignment.

Neighborhoods that are afflicted by a high volume of crime are also more likely to have a high volume of arrests and police use-of-force incidents.

“Neighborhoods that are afflicted by a high volume of crime are also more likely to have a high volume of arrests and police use-of-force incidents.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The use-of-force records obtained by RAND are a complete inventory of use-of-force incidents.

In use-of-force incidents, the type of force used was unrelated to the race of the suspect (p-value = 0.36).

“More generally, in use-of-force incidents, the type of force used was unrelated to the race of the suspect (p-value = 0.36).”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The use-of-force records obtained by RAND are a complete inventory of use-of-force incidents.

The statistical compilations reveal that crime tends to be clustered in specific parts of the city at certain times of the day and week.

“For example, the compilations reveal that crime tends to be clustered in specific parts of the city at certain times of the day and week.”

For use-of-force incidents involving white subjects, the prevalence of white officers is 62 percent.

“For use-of-force incidents involving white subjects, the prevalence of white officers is 62 percent.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The use-of-force records obtained by RAND are a complete inventory of use-of-force incidents.

CPD spends much of its law-enforcement effort, as measured by such actions as arrests and citations, on a few neighborhoods.

“CPD spends much of its law-enforcement effort, as measured by such actions as arrests and citations, on a few neighborhoods.”

The rate of use-of-force incidents per arrest has remained constant since 2005, at 14 uses of force per 1,000 arrests.

“The rate of use-of-force incidents per arrest has remained constant since 2005, at 14 uses of force per 1,000 arrests.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The use-of-force records obtained by RAND are a complete inventory of use-of-force incidents.

Officers were equally likely to conduct a high-discretion search, such as a consent search, of black and similarly situated nonblack drivers (5 percent of stops).

“Officers were equally likely to conduct a high-discretion search, such as a consent search, of black and similarly situated nonblack drivers (5 percent of stops).”

In 10 percent of ECD cases, the device is used in drive-stun mode.

“In 10 percent of those cases, the device is used in drive-stun mode”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The use-of-force records obtained by RAND are a complete inventory of use-of-force incidents.

Even if all stops recorded in CAD but not in contact cards were attributable to District 1 officers, the percentage of stops without contact cards in District 1 would still be 10 percent.

“Even if all of these stops were attributable to District 1 officers, the percentage of stops without contact cards would still be 10 percent.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: All traffic stops that CPD officers conducted appear in CAD.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: All traffic stops that CPD officers conducted should have an associated contact card.

In all of the firearm discharge cases, the subject had a gun (a BB gun in one case).

“In all of the cases, the subject had a gun (a BB gun in one case).”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The use-of-force records obtained by RAND are a complete inventory of use-of-force incidents.

CPD officers conducted an estimated 57,803 stops in 2007.

“Therefore, we estimate that CPD officers conducted 57,803 stops.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: All traffic stops that CPD officers conducted appear in CAD.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The estimate of sheriff's deputies stops from June and December 2007 is representative of the entire year.

When searched, black and nonblack drivers were equally likely to be found in possession of contraband (20 percent).

“When searched, black and nonblack drivers were equally likely to be found in possession of contraband (20 percent).”

One officer appears to be stopping substantially fewer black drivers than are found in similarly situated stops made by other officers.

“One officer appears to be stopping substantially fewer black drivers than are found in similarly situated stops made by other officers.”

• Also stated in: § Results · hedged

  “One officer was flagged as having a large probability of stopping disproportionately few black drivers (flagged officer 1).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Officers patrolling the same areas at the same times will be exposed to the same offender population.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The officers being compared are on the same assignment.

There are no racial differences in the rate at which officers use drive-stun mode.

“There are no racial differences in the rate at which officers use drive-stun mode.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The use-of-force records obtained by RAND are a complete inventory of use-of-force incidents.

There was no relationship between the type of force used and the subject's race.

“There was no relationship between the type of force used and the subject's race.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The use-of-force records obtained by RAND are a complete inventory of use-of-force incidents.

Four officers differ sufficiently from the internal benchmark to warrant further investigation.

“We estimate that four officers differ sufficiently from the internal benchmark to warrant further investigation.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Officers patrolling the same areas at the same times will be exposed to the same offender population.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The officers being compared are on the same assignment.

Compared to previous years, more stops are now lasting less than 10 minutes.

“Compared to previous years, more stops are now lasting less than 10 minutes.”

The 2007 hit rate was the lowest of any during the study period.

“The 2007 hit rate was the lowest of any during the study period.”

The doubling of high-discretion searches between 2003 and 2005 did not result in a decrease in the hit rate.

“the doubling of the number of high-discretion searches between 2003 and 2005 did not result in a decrease in the hit rate.”

When important factors are taken into account, search rates for black and nonblack motorists are nearly the same.

“the search rates are nearly the same when important factors are taken into account”

In 2007, 56 percent of stops last less than 10 minutes for both black and similarly situated nonblack drivers.

“In 2007, 56 percent of the stops last less than 10 minutes for both black and similarly situated nonblack drivers.”

To arrive at a near match on the distribution of stop features required paring the set of stops of nonblack drivers down from 24,220 to 4,996.

“To arrive at this near match on the distribution of stop features required effectively paring the set of stops of nonblack drivers down from 24,220 down to 4,996.”

A 13-percent increase in low-discretion searches led to the increase in searches.

“A 13-percent increase in low-discretion searches, such as searches incident to arrest, led to the increase.”

The search rate of black motorists is twice the search rate of all nonblack motorists.

“the search rate of black motorists is twice the search rate of all nonblack motorists”

Driver residence was an important factor on which the black and nonblack driver stops greatly differed.

“Driver residence was also an important factor on which the black and nonblack driver stops greatly differed.”

For stops of white drivers in Cincinnati, the search rate is 5 percent.

“For stops of white drivers, the search rate is 5 percent.”

Since 2005, there is a 3 to 4 percentage-point gap between citation rates for black and matched nonblack drivers.

“Since 2005, we have found a 3 to 4 percentage-point gap between the citation rates for black and matched nonblack drivers.”

For high-discretion searches, black and matched nonblack drivers have nearly the same search rates.

“For high-discretion searches (the searches most at risk for a racial bias), black and matched nonblack drivers have nearly the same search rates.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The legal basis codes recorded on contact cards accurately reflect the actual legal basis and discretion level of searches.

Traffic stops involving black drivers occur at different times and places from those involving nonblack drivers.

“Traffic stops involving black drivers occur at different times and places from those involving nonblack drivers.”

In 2007, 23 percent of the drivers stopped in Cincinnati were not Cincinnati residents.

“In 2007, 23 percent of the drivers stopped in Cincinnati were not Cincinnati residents.”

As in 2006, stops involving black drivers are less likely to involve a search based on consent.

“As in 2006, stops involving black drivers are less likely to involve a search based on consent”

Table 3.4 results indicate no evidence of racial profiling.

“Table 3.4 shows the results, which indicate no evidence of racial profiling.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The racial composition of the driving population does not change between daylight and darkness around DST changes.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The kinds of drivers who commit offenses for which police make stops do not change between daylight and darkness around DST changes.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The patterns of police allocation do not change between daylight and darkness around DST changes.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: There is not a differential change in relative offending rates by race as daylight moves into nighttime.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The allocation of police effort does not suddenly change following the time change.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Drivers who are likely to offend during daylight are also likely to be the ones who offend at nighttime.

Police search practices put the greatest burden of search on stop conditions that were more common to black drivers.

“police search practices put the greatest burden of search on stop conditions that were more common to black drivers.”

Stopped black drivers were more than three times more likely than nonblack drivers to have an invalid driver's license (18 percent versus 6 percent).

“stopped black drivers were more than three times more likely than were nonblack drivers to have an invalid driver's license (18 percent versus 6 percent)”

Black drivers were more likely to experience proactive policing during the stop.

“Black drivers were more likely to experience proactive policing during the stop”

Officers conducted 1,318 high-discretion searches of black drivers in 2007 that recovered no contraband.

“officers conducted 1,318 high-discretion searches of black drivers in 2007 that recovered no contraband.”

When properly matched, black and nonblack drivers stopped under the same conditions had nearly the same search rates.

“When properly matched, we found that black and nonblack drivers stopped under the same conditions had nearly the same search rates.”

Since 2004, no racial differences have been found in the percentage of stops that last less than 10 minutes when accounting for factors in Table 3.8.

“Since 2004, we have not found racial differences in the percentage of stops that last less than 10 minutes when we account for the factors in Table 3.8.”

Most of the difference between the features of stops of black and nonblack drivers involves differences in stop locations.

“Most of the difference between the features of stops of black and nonblack drivers involves differences in stop locations.”

In unmatched analysis, officers search black drivers at a rate more than double the rate for nonblack drivers (10.6 percent versus 4.7 percent).

“officers search black drivers at a rate that is more than double the rate for nonblack drivers (10.6 percent versus 4.7 percent).”

In Cincinnati, officers conduct searches of 11 percent of stops involving black drivers.

“Officers conduct searches of 11 percent of stops involving black drivers.”

In the same data set, 67 percent of the drivers stopped were male.

“in the same data set, we found that 67 percent of the drivers stopped were male.”

Officers searched 39 percent of drivers stopped without a license, regardless of race.

“Officers searched 39 percent of the drivers stopped without a license, regardless of race.”

For high-discretion searches, hit rates for black drivers are nearly the same as hit rates for nonblack drivers.

“For high-discretion searches, the hit rates for black drivers are nearly the same as the hit rates for nonblack drivers.”

65 percent of unmatched stops of nonblack drivers lasted less than 10 minutes.

“65 percent of the unmatched stops of nonblack drivers lasted less than 10 minutes”

The total missingness rate for the current analyses was 28 percent.

“This yields a total missingness rate of 28 percent for the current analyses.”

There has been substantial improvement in the quality of the data, with the overall missing rate less than half of what it was in the 2005 report.

“there has been substantial improvement in the quality of the data, with the overall missing rate less than half of what it was in the 2005 report.”

Of recordings sent, 13 percent had the incident not found.

“Of recordings sent, incident not found a 13”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The video recordings and coders' measures validly capture the interaction characteristics relevant to police-community relations.

Overall requested incidents missing for analysis was 28 percent.

“Overall requested incidents missing for analysis 28”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The video recordings and coders' measures validly capture the interaction characteristics relevant to police-community relations.

Black drivers were, on average, carrying more passengers than white drivers were.

“Black drivers were, on average, carrying more passengers than white drivers were.”

Several differences in the circumstances of the motor-vehicle stop were associated with the driver's race.

“Several differences in the circumstances of the motor-vehicle stop were associated with the driver's race (see Table 4.2).”

There is some evidence that CPD officers have improved in their communication with drivers over time, displaying better listening and improved patience.

“there is some evidence that CPD officers have improved in their communication with drivers over time, displaying better listening and improved patience.”

There was no evidence of statistically significant changes over time in the effect of race on the behavior of either the driver or the officer.

“There was no evidence of statistically significant changes over time in the effect of race on the behavior of either the driver or the officer.”

In approximately one-quarter of the recordings, the audio did not allow for analysis of the officer's speech, the driver's speech, or both.

“In approximately one-quarter of the recordings, the audio did not allow for analysis of the officer's speech, the driver's speech, or both.”

These results are largely consistent with findings in the 2005, 2006, and 2007 reports.

“These results are largely consistent with the findings in the 2005, 2006, and 2007 reports.”

White officers were more likely than black officers to use proactive policing tactics in incidents involving black drivers.

“White officers were more likely than were black officers to use proactive policing tactics in incidents involving black drivers.”

Rates of missing records for incidents not available and incidents not found were approximately equal across racially defined strata.

“As with data in prior years, the rates of missing records (missingness) for both the incidents not available and the incidents not found were approximately equal across the racially defined strata.”

The most important recording-quality problem was the intelligibility of the audio.

“The most important recording-quality problem was the intelligibility of the audio.”

For both variables in Table 4.4, the racial difference between the actions of white and black officers is found only for stops involving black drivers.

“For both of these variables, the racial difference between the actions of white and black officers is found only for stops involving black drivers.”

The discrepancy between the numbers of searches conducted by black and white officers, with black officers performing fewer searches, is smaller in 2007 than in 2006.

“However, there is one significant difference relative to 2006: The discrepancy between the numbers of searches conducted by black and white officers (in which black officers performed fewer searches) is smaller in 2007 than in 2006.”

The more-invasive traffic stops that black drivers experience occur primarily when they have been stopped by white officers.

“Regardless of the ultimate cause of these effects, the fact that the more-invasive traffic stops that black drivers experience occur primarily when they have been stopped by white officers should be expected to contribute to more negative attitudes within the black community.”

For black drivers, stops by white officers were less likely to be for a moving violation than stops by black officers.

“The stop is less likely to be for a moving violation, and passengers are more likely to be asked for ID.”

Nonblack respondents generally reported CPD's professionalism as good.

“Nonblack respondents generally reported CPD's professionalism as good, and that rating was unchanged between 2005 and 2008.”

White officers were significantly more likely to require identification from passengers in the cars than black officers.

“White officers were significantly more likely to require identification from passengers in the cars, and they were more likely to stop cars for nonmoving violations (most typically, equipment or registration violations) (see Table 4.3).”

In general, the results largely replicate the findings of previous years.

“In general, the results largely replicate the findings of previous years.”

The differences between the behaviors of black and white officers in 2007 have not changed significantly from those differences found in 2005 data.

“In general, the differences between the behaviors of black and white officers in 2007 has not changed significantly from those differences found in 2005 data.”

The differences in the stops of black and white drivers are more pronounced when the officer is white.

“These concerns about enforcement patterns are particularly of interest because of evidence that these differences in the stops of black and white drivers are more pronounced when the officer is white.”

The role of race in the interactions between police and citizens has been remarkably stable over the four years of analysis.

“In general, the role of race in the interactions between police and citizens has been remarkably stable over the four years of analysis.”

The study did not find convincing evidence of change for any of the race effects observed.

“We did not find convincing evidence of change for any of the race effects we observed.”

Black and nonblack respondents reported that they generally do not see CPD officers actively stopping or detaining individuals.

“Black and nonblack respondents reported that they generally do not see CPD officers actively stopping or detaining individu-als, though black respondents were slightly more likely to report seeing CPD activity in their neighborhood.”

A lower proportion of stops of black drivers than of white drivers occurred due to moving violations.

“A lower proportion of the stops of black drivers than those of white drivers occurred due to moving violations.”

White officers were more likely to stop cars for nonmoving violations than black officers.

“White officers were significantly more likely to require identification from passengers in the cars, and they were more likely to stop cars for nonmoving violations (most typically, equipment or registration violations) (see Table 4.3).”

The stops of black drivers took an average of 3.4 minutes longer than stops of white drivers.

“The stops of black drivers took an average of 3.4 minutes longer than for white drivers, and they were more likely to involve multiple police officers.”

Regardless of whether the stop was in the day or night, ended in a warning or an arrest, or was by a man or a woman, the quality of each person's communication tended to rise or sink to the level of the other.

“Regardless of whether the stop was in the day or night, ended in a warning or an arrest, or was by a man or a woman, the quality of each person's communication tended to rise or sink to the level of the other.”

Between 2005 and 2008, both black and nonblack respondents reported significant decreases in the perception of the use of racial profiling by CPD officers.

“Between 2005 and 2008, both black and nonblack respondents reported significant decreases in the perception of the use of racial profiling by CPD officers.”

The perceived level of active policing remained the same between 2005 and 2008.

“The perceived level of active policing remained the same between 2005 and 2008.”

The driver's communication quality was not significantly different for black and white drivers while controlling for the officers' communication quality.

“The driver's communication quality was not significantly different for black and white drivers while controlling for the officers' communication quality.”

There was no significant evidence of change over time in the magnitude of the racial difference in driver communication quality.

“More generally, there was no significant evidence of change over time in the magnitude of the racial difference in driver communication quality.”

On average, blacks and whites experienced very different types of policing.

“One key finding that sets the background for understanding these interactions is that, on average, blacks and whites experienced very different types of policing.”

Black respondents were slightly more likely than nonblack respondents to report seeing CPD activity in their neighborhood.

“Black and nonblack respondents reported that they generally do not see CPD officers actively stopping or detaining individu-als, though black respondents were slightly more likely to report seeing CPD activity in their neighborhood.”

The communication quality of CPD officers improved between 2005 and 2007 (p < 0.001) while controlling for driver communication and stop characteristics.

“We did, however, find one significant difference over time that is unrelated to the race of the officer or driver: The communication quality of CPD officers has improved between 2005 and 2007 (p < 0.001) while controlling for driver communication and stop characteristics.”

Black drivers and their vehicles were more likely to be investigated for illegal items than white drivers and their vehicles.

“In addition, black drivers and their vehicles were more likely to be investigated for illegal items.”

Black drivers experience longer and more-invasive traffic stops.

“Black drivers experience longer and more-invasive traffic stops; this difference in stop characteristics is attributable largely to those stops involving white officers; and black drivers tend to be more upset and less apologetic than white drivers in similar situations.”

Black male respondents were 3.5 times more likely than black women to report that they believed they had been stopped because of their race.

“Black male respondents were 3.5 times more likely than black women to report that they believed they had been stopped because of their race.”

These differences in the stops of black and white drivers are generally larger when a white officer initiates the stop.

“These differences in the stops of black and white drivers are generally larger when a white officer initiates the stop.”

There is no significant effect of officer race when looking at stops of white motorists.

“There is no significant effect of officer race when looking at stops of white motorists.”

The stops of white drivers are largely the same regardless of the officer's race.

“In contrast, the stops of white drivers are largely the same regardless of the officer's race.”

For black drivers, stops by white officers were more likely to require passengers to give ID than stops by black officers.

“The stop is less likely to be for a moving violation, and passengers are more likely to be asked for ID.”

Black respondents, on average, gave lower ratings of CPD professionalism than nonblack respondents.

“Black respondents, on average, gave lower ratings than nonblack respondents, but the trend shows clear improvements.”

Stops of black drivers were more likely to involve multiple police officers than stops of white drivers.

“The stops of black drivers took an average of 3.4 minutes longer than for white drivers, and they were more likely to involve multiple police officers.”

The trend in black respondents' ratings of CPD professionalism shows clear improvements.

“Black respondents, on average, gave lower ratings than nonblack respondents, but the trend shows clear improvements.”

There was evidence of improvements in police-community relations.

“In spite of this stability in the racial effects over time, there was evidence of improvements in police-community relations.”

White officers conduct approximately two-thirds of all stops of black motorists.

“This problem is exacerbated by the fact that white officers conduct approximately two-thirds of all stops of black motorists, so any problems in these interactions are likely to affect a large number of African Americans.”

Nonblack respondents' rating of CPD professionalism was unchanged between 2005 and 2008.

“Nonblack respondents generally reported CPD's professionalism as good, and that rating was unchanged between 2005 and 2008.”

It is unlikely that the 0.15 increase in perceived police professionalism among black respondents is due to chance alone.

“It is unlikely that this change is due to chance alone.”

The perceived level of active policing remained unchanged between 2005 and 2008 for both black and nonblack respondents.

“The perceived level of active policing remained unchanged between 2005 and 2008 for both black and nonblack respondents.”

The overall proportion of African Americans who felt that police had ever stopped them because of their race remained statistically unchanged at 39 percent.

“the overall proportion of African Americans who felt that police had ever stopped them because of their race remained statistically unchanged at 39 percent.”

In Over-the-Rhine, police professionalism increased significantly from 2.2 in 2005 to 2.6 in 2008.

“In Overthe-Rhine, police professionalism increased significantly-from 2.2 in 2005 to 2.6 in 2008 (see Table D.2 in Appendix D).”

The majority of responding officers (78 percent) indicated that they agreed or strongly agreed that the black community complained unfairly about racial profiling.

“The majority of responding officers (78 percent) indicated that they agreed or strongly agreed that the black community complained unfairly about racial profiling.”

The overwhelming majority of officers who responded believe that residents' input is critical to solving neighborhood problems.

“The overwhelming majority of officers who responded to the survey believe that residents' input is critical to solving neighborhood problems.”

In 2008, 75% of officer respondents agreed or strongly agreed that the media report unfairly about racial profiling.

“the majority of respondents indicated that they agreed or strongly agreed (75 percent) that the media report unfairly about racial profiling”

Among black respondents, 53 percent of men felt they had been stopped because of their race, compared with 25 percent of women of similar age, education, marital status, and other characteristics.

“For example, 53 percent of black men felt that they had been stopped because of their race, and 25 percent of females of similar age, education, marital status, and other characteristics reported that they had been stopped because of their race.”

White and black officers did not differ in their views of the general community's unfair complaints against police abuse of authority.

“The white and black officers did not differ in their views of the general community's unfair complaints against police abuse of authority.”

Respondents in 2008 reported higher levels of police professionalism than did respondents in 2005.

“On the outcome measures, respondents in 2008 reported higher levels of police professionalism than did respondents in 2005.”

The racial difference in perceptions of media unfairness about racial profiling and police abuse of authority was not observed in 2006.

“This racial difference was not observed in 2006.”

78 percent of responding officers reported that they 'almost never' or 'sometimes' experience citizens providing them with information about a crime.

“This is not surprising, as 78 percent of them reported that they “almost never” or “sometimes” experience citizens providing them with information about a crime.”

Officers who responded believe that the black community and the media complained unfairly about racial profiling and police abuse of power.

“Officers who responded to the survey believe that the black community and the media complained unfairly about racial profiling and police abuse of power”

The increase in perceived police professionalism among black respondents was 0.15.

“The figure most relevant to the goals of the collaborative agreement is the increase in perceived police professionalism among black respondents, which we found increased by 0.15.”

The perception that citizens would not work with police was consistent across districts.

“This perception was consistent across districts.”

In 2008, 74% of officer respondents agreed or strongly agreed that the media report unfairly about police abuse of authority.

“as well as police abuse of authority (74 percent) (see Table 6.5)”

Three-quarters of respondents indicated that they agreed or strongly agreed that the black community complained unfairly about police abuse of authority.

“Similarly, threequarters of respondents indicated that they agreed or strongly agreed that the black community complained unfairly about police abuse of authority (see Table 6.4).”

Unlike the 2006 survey, in 2008, black officers held different views than white officers.

“Unlike the 2006 survey, in 2008, black officers held different views than white officers.”

Black and nonblack respondents reacted differently to questions about active policing practices in their neighborhoods.

“Similar to the results observed for the police-professionalism scale, black and nonblack respondents reacted differently to questions about active policing practices in their neighborhoods.”

Black and nonblack respondents differed significantly on their responses to questions about CPD's use of race in policing activities.

“Black and nonblack respondents differed significantly on their responses to questions about CPD's use of race in policing activities.”

About half of officer respondents indicated that the general community complains unfairly.

“only half the officers indicated that the general community complains unfairly”

Nonblack respondents reported a negligible increase in the police-professionalism score in 2008, an increase of 0.02.

“Nonblack respondents reported a negligible increase in the policeprofessionalism score in 2008, an increase of 0.02.”

Respondents who perceived more social disorder in their neighborhoods were more likely than others to feel they had ever been stopped because of their race.

“Finally, respondents who perceived more social disorder in their neighborhoods were more likely than others to feel they had ever been stopped because of their race.”

The perception of racial profiling fell between 2005 and 2008.

“The perception of racial profiling fell between 2005 and 2008”

Approximately half of the officers who responded indicated that it was somewhat or very unlikely that citizens would work with the police to solve neighborhood problems.

“Approximately half of the officers who responded indicated that it was somewhat or very unlikely that citizens would work with the police to solve neighborhood problems (Table 6.3).”

Nonblack respondents' active-policing scale averaged 1.5, exactly between 'Almost never' and 'Sometimes'.

“Nonblack respondents' active-policing scale averaged 1.5, exactly between an “Almost never” and a “Sometimes” response to questions about perceived active policing.”

Reports of active policing were unchanged between 2005 and 2008.

“Reports of active policing were unchanged.”

For nonblack respondents, the average police-professionalism score in 2005 was just under 3.0 out of a maximum of 4.0.

“The results show that, on average, the police-professionalism score for nonblack respondents in 2005 was just under 3.0 (equivalent to a “Good” rating of police professionalism) out of a maximum of 4.0.”

The officers' agreement about the black community's complaints against the department mirrors those from the previous year's study (93 and 92 percent agreed or strongly agreed about racial profiling and police abuse, respectively).

“The officers' agreement about the black community's complaints against the department mirrors those from the previous year's study (93 and 92 percent agreed or strongly agreed that the black community complained unfairly about racial profiling and police abuse of authority, respectively).”

On average, black respondents in 2005 rated police professionalism about 0.6 points lower than did nonblack respondents.

“On average, black respondents in 2005 rated police professionalism about 0.6 points lower than did nonblack respondents.”

None of the models indicates that respondents' tendencies to feel that they had ever been stopped because of their race changed between 2005 and 2008.

“None of the models indicates that respondents' tendencies to feel that they had ever been stopped because of their race changed between 2005 and 2008.”

In 2008, 45% of officer respondents reported that almost all suspects use physical force.

“with nearly half (45 percent) reporting that almost all suspects use physical force”

With each additional year of age, the odds of reporting experience with racial profiling decreases by 1 percent.

“With each additional year of age, the odds of reporting experience with racial profiling decreases by 1 percent.”

Only a small minority of responding officers reported being aware of the Community Police Partnering Center.

“Most troubling, only a small minority of officers reported being aware of the Community Police Partnering Center”

The perception that the complaint process makes filing a complaint too easy did not vary by officer race, rank, or district.

“This perception did not vary by officer race, rank, or district.”

The amount of trust one had in one's neighbors was the only social capital measure associated with feelings of ever having been stopped because of one's race.

“The amount of trust one had in one's neighbors was the only social capital measure associated with feelings of ever having been stopped because of one's race.”

Around two-fifths of officer respondents perceived unclear guidance from CPD on expectations for evaluations and promotion.

“with around two-fifths of respondents perceiving unclear guidance”

58% of officer respondents believed police management was likely to help fix an identified problem.

“A little more than half of the officers believed this to be likely (58 percent).”

Only 20% of officer respondents thought supervisors gave adequate input.

“only 20 percent thought supervisors gave adequate input”

83% of officer respondents agreed or strongly agreed that proactive activities were signs of a good patrol officer.

“Most officers who responded to the survey (83 percent) indicated that they agreed or strongly agreed that these proactive activities were signs of a good patrol officer.”

The rates of feeling in serious danger did not vary by district.

“These rates did not vary by the district in which the officer worked.”

Approximately two-thirds of officer respondents indicated their jobs were major sources of satisfaction in their lives.

“Approximately two-thirds of the officers who responded to the survey indicated that their jobs were major sources of satisfaction in their lives”

92% of complainants accused the police of discourtesy or an unprofessional attitude.

“The majority (92 percent) of complainants accused the police of discourtesy or an unprofessional attitude.”

88% of officer respondents believed public recognition for exceptional officers was rare.

“Most officers (88 percent) believed that public recognition for exceptional officers was rare.”

90% of officer respondents felt consulting with community residents was an important part of the problem-solving process.

“Almost all officers (90 percent) felt that consulting with community residents was an important part of the problemsolving process.”

80% of officer respondents felt they had inadequate input from supervisors.

“while 80 percent of officers felt they had inadequate input”

Almost half of the officers felt that non-crime-related problems in their districts were not their concern.

“almost half of the officers still felt that non-crimerelated problems in their districts were not their concern”

96% of officer respondents indicated police officers should make frequent informal contact to establish trust and cooperation with citizens.

“almost all respondents (96 percent) indicated that police officers should make frequent informal contact to establish trust and cooperation with citizens”

93% of officers reported that half or more suspects attempt to resist arrest through physical force.

“93 percent reporting that half or more suspects attempt to resist arrest through physical force”

20% of the general population of Cincinnati were familiar with the Community Police Partnering Center in the 2005 survey.

“This compares with 20 percent of the general population of Cincinnati that we found in our 2005 survey of Cincinnati residents.”

Officers who responded tended to have more favorable opinions of the investigation than complainants.

“Officers who responded tended to have more-favorable opinions of the investigation than complainants had.”

The majority of responding officers thought that the media and the black community complained unfairly about racial profiling and police abuse of authority.

“The majority of responding officers thought that the media and the black community complained unfairly about racial profiling and police abuse of authority”

91% of officer respondents indicated CPD officer safety training was good or excellent.

“Almost all officer respondents (91 percent) indicated that the training that they received from CPD on officer safety was good or excellent”

Officers who responded were more satisfied with the complaint process and outcome than citizens who responded.

“Officers who responded were more satisfied with the complaint process and outcome than citizens who responded to the survey.”

96% of officer respondents felt working with residents was key in solving crime.

“Most (96 percent) also felt that working with residents was key in solving crime.”

Only 5% of officer respondents thought officer safety training was poor.

“only 5 percent thought it was poor”

The majority of officers viewed enforcing the law as their highest priority.

“Although the majority of officers who responded to the survey viewed enforcing the law as their highest priority”

In 2008, 88% of officer respondents indicated they usually or always feel in serious danger when dealing with suspects.

“Eighty-eight percent of respondents indicated that they usually or always feel that they are in serious danger when dealing with suspects.”

91% of officer surveys and 67% of citizen surveys concerned complaints about face-to-face interactions.

“Most of the complaints were in regard to face-to-face interactions between officers and citizens (91 percent of officer surveys and 67 percent of citizen surveys).”

88% of officers reported that they feel half or more of the time in serious danger when with a criminal suspect.

“88 percent reporting that they feel half or more of the time that they are in serious dangerous of physical harm when they are with a criminal suspect”

83% of officer respondents strongly agreed or agreed they were personally committed to their jobs.

“83 percent of respondents strongly agreed or agreed that they were personally committed to their jobs”

Officers expressed a high level of agreement that community residents should help shape police work priorities.

“Officers who responded to the survey also expressed a high level of agreement that community residents should help shape police work priorities.”

71% of officer respondents agreed or strongly agreed that enforcing the law was an officer's highest priority.

“The majority of respondents (71 percent) indicated that they agreed or strongly agreed that enforcing the law was an officer's highest priority.”

Citizens reported a variety of mechanisms for contact that resulted in a complaint, with no identifiable pattern.

“Citizens reported a variety of mechanisms for the contact that resulted in a complaint, and there was no identifiable pattern”

Officers were aware that informal interactions with citizens were an important method for solving problems and crime.

“they were also aware that informal interactions with citizens were an important method for solving problems and crime”

100% of police officers and 92% of complainants indicated investigators followed up on a majority of complaints.

“respondents indicated that investigators followed up on a major-ity of complaints (100 percent of police officers and 92 percent of complainants)”

78% of officer respondents strongly agreed or agreed that effective supervision could identify officers who abused authority.

“78 percent strongly agreed or agreed”

Residents of Over-the-Rhine reported an even greater increase in perceived police professionalism than the citywide average.

“Furthermore, residents of Over-the-Rhine reported an even greater increase in perceived police professionalism than the citywide average.”

In more than half of the cases, citizens wished no punishment at all for the officer-just a warning or an apology.

“In more than half of the cases, citizens wished no punishment at all for the officer-just a warning from the officer's supervisor or an apology.”

There are still substantial gaps between how black and white residents view CPD.

“There are still substantial gaps between how black and white residents view CPD”

In 2005, 60% of requested video recordings were unavailable.

“Our first analysis of video records in 2005 was hampered by the unavailability of 60 percent of requested recordings.”

The improvement in perceived police professionalism was largest among black respondents.

“This improvement was largest among black respondents”

Black and white drivers have an equal chance of being searched.

“They have an equal chance of being searched”

Officers have improved in their communication quality when conducting vehicle stops.

“We also find some evidence that officers have improved in their communication quality when conducting vehicle stops.”

Residents perceive a more professional police department than they did in 2005.

“We found that residents perceive a more professional police department than they did in 2005.”

Officers displayed better listening to what drivers say in stops made in 2007 than in 2005.

“they displayed better listening to what the drivers say”

Half of the respondents did not know or understand the resolution of the complaint when they completed the survey.

“Half of the respondents did not know or understand the resolution of the complaint when they completed the survey”

There is different policing behavior between black officers and white officers, particularly in stops involving black motorists.

“We continue to find different policing behavior between black officers and white officers, particularly in stops involving black motorists.”

Westwood continues to have an increasing rate of calls for service, with a 19% increase since 2005.

“Westwood continues to have an increasing rate of calls for service, with a 19-percent increase since 2005.”

Only 17% of requested video recordings were unavailable for this year's report.

“In addition, only 17 percent of requested video recordings were unavailable for this year's report.”

There are still substantial gaps between how different neighborhoods are policed.

“how different neighborhoods are policed”

In similar circumstances, black and white drivers have similar stop outcomes.

“Our analysis of the pattern of traffic stops indicates that, in similar circumstances, black and white drivers have similar stop outcomes.”

Black and white drivers have an equal chance of having a short traffic stop.

“an equal chance of having a short traffic stop”

The bivariate effects of the police-district dummy variables were explained entirely by the demographic variables and neighborhood controls.

“However, the bivariate effects of these variables were explained entirely by the demographic variables and neighborhood controls.”

Officer communication quality has improved over time (based on video recordings).

“Our analysis of video recordings of traffic stops indicate that officer communication quality has improved over time”

All other factors being equal, blacks experience interactions with the police more frequently than whites do.

“all other factors being equal, blacks experience interactions with the police more frequently than whites do.”

There are facts about policing in Cincinnati that continue to exacerbate the perception of racial bias.

“there are facts about policing in Cincinnati that continue to exacerbate the perception of racial bias.”

Black respondents rated CPD less favorably than nonblack respondents.

“although they rated CPD less favorably than nonblack respondents”

Relations between the police department and the community in Cincinnati have improved.

“Our survey of Cincinnati residents indicates that relations between the police department and the community have, in fact, improved.”

Officers displayed improved patience in stops made in 2007 than in 2005.

“improved patience in stops made in 2007 than in 2005”

Pleasant Ridge had a 24% increase in calls for service since 2005.

“Other neighborhoods with large increases include East Westwood (27 percent since 2005), Pleasant Ridge (24 percent since 2005), and Fairview (23 percent since 2005).”

Fairview had a 23% increase in calls for service since 2005.

“Other neighborhoods with large increases include East Westwood (27 percent since 2005), Pleasant Ridge (24 percent since 2005), and Fairview (23 percent since 2005).”

In two cases, citizens wished the officer be fired, if not also charged with a crime.

“In two cases, citizens were at the other extreme, wishing that the officer be fired, if not also charged with a crime.”

East Westwood had a 27% increase in calls for service since 2005.

“Other neighborhoods with large increases include East Westwood (27 percent since 2005), Pleasant Ridge (24 percent since 2005), and Fairview (23 percent since 2005).”

Significant racial disparities remain.

“significant racial disparities remain”

Black residents are more likely to encounter enforcement in general.

“black residents, by virtue of where they live, how police allocate their officers, and other factors, are more likely to encounter enforcement in general”

Black residents are more likely to encounter enforcement of a particularly proactive nature.

“more likely to encounter enforcement of a particularly proactive nature”

There are still substantial gaps between how white and black officers carry out their duties.

“how white and black officers carry out their duties”

In the three cases in which the complaint was not sustained or unfounded, the complainant believed the outcome was unfair.

“in the three cases in which the complaint was not sustained or unfounded, the complainant believed that the outcome was unfair”

Only 0.7% of stops documented in 2007 were missing critical information.

“Only 0.7 percent of stops documented in 2007 were missing critical information.”

There is no evidence of a departmentwide pattern of racial bias in the decision to make stops.

“We also found no evidence of a departmentwide pattern of racial bias in the decision to make stops.”

Police-community relations in Cincinnati have improved in a number of ways since RAND began analyzing data and studying the issues in 2005.

“Since we began analyzing the data and studying the issues in 2005, our analyses indicate that police-community relations in Cincinnati have improved in a number of ways.”

External monitoring by plaintiff attorneys and court-appointed monitors prompted changes in CPD.

“Second, external monitoring by plaintiff attorneys and courtappointed monitors has also prompted changes.”

Differences in policing experienced by blacks and whites in Cincinnati are based on when, where, and why their stops take place rather than on the driver's race.

“However, as we note in our previous reports, those differences were based on when, where, and why their stops take place rather than on the driver's race.”

Differences in policing can undermine police-community relations.

“Nonetheless, these differences can undermine police-community relations.”

A program that appears responsible for a substantial decrease in crime consequently results in an increase in stops that involve black drivers.

“A program that appears to be responsible for a substantial decrease in crime consequently results in an increase in stops that involve black drivers.”

Cincinnati's black drivers are stopped in times, places, and contexts in which CPD officers are more proactive and take a more investigative approach.

“The first finding from the analysis of the recordings notes that Cincinnati's black drivers are stopped in times, places, and contexts in which CPD officers are more proactive and take a more investigative approach.”

It may not be possible to field a proactive enforcement strategy that is racially neutral.

“While it may not be possible to field a proactive enforcement strategy that is racially neutral”

• Also stated in: § Progress Toward the Goals of the Collaborative Agreement · hedged

  “it may not be possible to field a proactive enforcement strategy that is racially neutral”

• cites Schell et al., 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Much of the differences in stop duration and search likelihood between black and nonblack drivers appear to be driven by the location and time of the stop, the type of stop, whether the driver was a Cincinnati resident, and whether the driver had a valid driver's license.

“However, much of these differences appear to be driven by the location and time of the stop, the type of stop, whether the driver was a Cincinnati resident, and whether the driver had a valid driver's license.”

Black drivers in Cincinnati are more likely than nonblack drivers to have a protracted negative interaction with the police.

“Regardless of whether this is good policing strategy, it points out that black drivers in Cincinnati are more likely than nonblack drivers to have a protracted negative interaction with the police.”

Such no-contraband high-discretion searches can contribute to blacks' perceptions of unfair policing.

“This can contribute to blacks' perceptions of unfair policing that were identified in last year's report (Schell et al., 2007).”

• cites Schell et al., 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

As a result of low participation, the officer survey findings may not correctly reflect the views of those CPD officers who did not respond.

“As a result, these findings may not correctly reflect the views of those CPD officers who did not respond.”

Based on the two most recent years of data, there is no evidence of racial bias in the selection of stops resulting in searches.

“Based on the two most recent years of data, we find no evidence of racial bias in the selection of stops resulting in searches.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Nonblack drivers stopped in similar locations, at similar times, and for similar reasons as black drivers are an appropriate comparison group for assessing racial bias in post-stop outcomes.

The relationship between the community and the police in Cincinnati is headed in the right direction.

“The results suggest that the relationship between the community and the police is headed in the right direction (see Table S.7).”

There appears to be no evidence of a department-wide practice of targeting black drivers for stops in Cincinnati.

“Therefore, we conclude that there appears to be no evidence of a department-wide practice of targeting black drivers for stops.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Race is reasonably visible during daylight and less visible after dark.

Blacks continue to bear a disproportionate share of the impact of policing services by virtue of the clustering of crime, calls for service, and policing in predominantly black neighborhoods.

“Blacks continue to bear a disproportionate share of the impact of policing services by virtue of the clustering of crime, calls for service, and policing in predominantly black neighborhoods.”

Law-enforcement presence is going to be clustered in space and time in a way that correlates with the crime patterns.

“In turn, this means that law-enforcement presence is going to be clustered in space and time in a way that correlates with the crime patterns.”

Census data from 2007 report that 44 percent of Cincinnati's residents are black.

“Census data from 2007 report that 44 percent of Cincinnati's residents are black (U.S. Census Bureau, 2007).”

• cites U.S. Census Bureau, 2007Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

While the trends appear positive, without a concerted effort to ameliorate the disparate impact of these policies, it seems likely that black Cincinnati residents will remain less satisfied with policing services than will their white counterparts.

“While the trends appear positive, without a concerted effort to ameliorate the disparate impact of these policies, it seems likely that black Cincinnati residents will remain less satisfied with policing services than will their white counterparts.”

This difference in approach to traffic stops can certainly fuel the perception among stopped black drivers that their race played a role in the stop.

“This difference in approach to traffic stops can certainly fuel the perception among stopped black drivers that their race played a role in the stop.”

The risk of exposure to law enforcement is not uniform over time and space.

“Other tasks, such as the traffic-stop analy-ses, must take these clustering patterns into account, since the risk of exposure to law enforcement is not uniform over time and space.”

The decline in the total number of use-of-force incidents appears to be a result of the decline in arrests rather than a reduction in use of force.

“The decline in the total number of use-of-force incidents appears to be a result of the decline in arrests rather than a reduction in use of force.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The use-of-force records obtained by RAND are a complete inventory of use-of-force incidents.

As a result, these neighborhoods' residents are likely to be exposed to negative interactions with police, either personally or by witnessing an arrest or use-of-force incident in their neighborhood.

“As a result, these neighborhoods' residents are likely to be exposed to negative interactions with police, either personally or by witnessing an arrest or use-of-force incident in their neighborhood.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The use-of-force records obtained by RAND are a complete inventory of use-of-force incidents.

In 2002, the City of Cincinnati and other parties entered into a collaborative agreement.

“In 2002, the City of Cincinnati and other parties (collectively, the parties) entered into a collaborative agreement that sought to achieve the following goals:”

• cites In re Cincinnati Policing, S.D. Ohio, 2003, pp.34Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Over-the-Rhine, Avondale, West End, Downtown, East Price Hill, and Walnut Hills appear to be neighborhoods that crime and police interventions (e.g., stops, arrests, and use of force) disproportionately affect.

“Over-the-Rhine, Avondale, West End, Downtown, East Price Hill, and Walnut Hills appear to be neighborhoods that crime and police interventions (e.g., stops, arrests, and use of force) disproportionately affect.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The use-of-force records obtained by RAND are a complete inventory of use-of-force incidents.

If the hit rate were lower for one racial group, this would suggest that officers searched that racial group more often than other racial groups.

“If the hit rate were lower for one racial group, this would suggest that officers searched that racial group more often than they did other racial groups.”

If one racial group committed more serious or more dangerous moving violations, the matching cannot account for this.

“If one racial group committed more serious or more dangerous moving violations, our matching cannot account for this.”