Diurnal variations of energetic particle radiation at the surface of Mars as observed by the Mars Science Laboratory Radiation Assessment Detector
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The Radiation Assessment Detector onboard the Mars Science Laboratory rover Curiosity is detecting the energetic particle radiation at the surface of Mars. Data collected over the first 350 Martian days of the nominal surface mission show a pronounced diurnal cycle in both the total dose rate and the neutral particle count rate. The diurnal variations detected by the Radiation Assessment Detector were neither anticipated nor previously considered in the literature. These cyclic variations in dose rate and count rate are shown to be the result of changes in atmospheric column mass driven by the atmospheric thermal tide that is characterized through pressure measurements obtained by the Rover Environmental Monitoring Station, also onboard the rover. In addition to bulk changes in the radiation environment, changes in atmospheric shielding forced by the thermal tide are shown to disproportionately affect heavy ions compared to H and He nuclei.
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The simulated total dose rates using Badhwar-O'Neill 2011 and HZETRN reproduce the observed variation of surface dose rate with changing heliospheric conditions and atmospheric pressure.
“reproduces the observed variation of surface dose rate with changing heliospheric conditions and atmospheric pressure [Rafkin et al., 2014].”
From Comparison of Martian surface ionizing radiation measurements from MSL-RAD with Badhwar-O'Neill 2011/HZETRN model calculations (2014) · cites this paper as Rafkin et al., 2014
The Summary and Conclusion (page unavailable) reports that measured surface dose rates vary with atmospheric pressure and that this effect is qualitatively consistent with scaled model results. The Data Analysis section also identifies heliospheric variability as a signal in the dose measurements. But the paper does not show that total-dose simulations using Badhwar–O’Neill 2011 and HZETRN reproduce the observed variation under both changing heliospheric conditions and atmospheric pressure. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe observed pressure-dose anticorrelation indicates a shielding effect of the Martian atmosphere.
“This reveals a shielding effect of the atmosphere on the surface radiation environment”
From Radiation environment for future human exploration on the surface of Mars: the current understanding based on MSL/RAD dose measurements (2021) · cites this paper as Rafkin et al. 2014
The anticorrelation reveals a shielding effect of the atmosphere on the surface radiation environment.
“This reveals a shielding effect of the atmosphere on the surface radiation environment (Rafkin et al. 2014).”
From Radiation environment for future human exploration on the surface of Mars: the current understanding based on MSL/RAD dose measurements (2021) · cites this paper as Rafkin et al. 2014
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“…from the daily mean value can be extracted as dDhourly ¼ Dhourly Ddaily; second, the hourly variation of the pressure from the daily mean value can be similarly extracted as dPhourly; finally, dDhourly can be correlated with dPhourly over multiple days (Rafkin et al. 2014; Guo et al. 2015b, 2017a).”
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Zeitlin, C. J., Narici, L., Rios, R. R., Rizzo, A., Stoffle, N., Hassler, D. M., Ehresmann, B., Wimmer-Schweingruber, R. F., Guo, J., Schwadron, N. A., et al. (2019) · Space Weather · doi:10.1029/2018sw002103 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Self-citationPieve, F. D., Gronoff, G., Guo, J., Mertens, C. J., Neary, L., Gu, B., Koval, N. E., Kohanoff, J. J., Vandaele, A. C., & Cleri, F. (2020) · Journal of Geophysical Research Planets · doi:10.1029/2020je006488 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Martian surface radiation environment at solar minimum measured with MSL/RAD
Ehresmann, B., Zeitlin, C. J., Hassler, D. M., Guo, J., Wimmer-Schweingruber, R. F., Berger, T., Matthiä, D., & Reitz, G. (2022) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2022.115035 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Self-citationUllán, A., Zorzano, M., Martín-Torres, F. J., Valentín-Serrano, P., Kahanpää, H., Harri, A., Gómez‐Elvira, J., & Navarro, S. (2017) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2017.01.020 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Self-citationNatural Radiation Shielding on Mars Measured With the MSL/RAD Instrument
Ehresmann, B., Hassler, D. M., Zeitlin, C., Guo, J., Wimmer‐Schweingruber, R. F., Khaksari, S., & Loeffler, S. (2021) · Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets · doi:10.1029/2021je006851 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Self-citationMars neutron radiation environment from HEND/Odyssey and DAN/MSL observations
Litvak, M. L., Sanin, A. B., Mitrofanov, I. G., Bakhtin, B. N., Jun, I., Sierra, L. M. M., Носов, А. В., & Perkhov, A. S. (2020) · Planetary and Space Science · doi:10.1016/j.pss.2020.104866 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Directionality of the Martian Surface Radiation and Derivation of the Upward Albedo Radiation
Guo, J., Khaksarighiri, S., Wimmer‐Schweingruber, R. F., Hassler, D. M., Ehresmann, B., Zeitlin, C., Löffler, S., Matthiä, D., Berger, T., Reitz, G., et al. (2021) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2021gl093912 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“A low elevation and consequently a thicker atmosphere can also enhance the shielding effect as observed by RAD (Guo et al., 2017; Rafkin et al., 2014).”
BackgroundSelf-citationvon Forstner, J. L. F., Guo, J., Wimmer-Schweingruber, R. F., Temmer, M., Dumbović, M., Veronig, A., Möstl, C., Hassler, D. M., Zeitlin, C. J., & Ehresmann, B. (2019) · Space Weather · doi:10.1029/2018sw002138 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Self-citationUnfolding the Neutron Flux Spectrum on the Surface of Mars Using the MSL‐RAD and Odyssey‐HEND Data
Sierra, L. M. M., Jun, I., Ehresmann, B., Zeitlin, C. J., Guo, J., Litvak, M. L., HARSHMAN, K. P., Hassler, D. M., Mitrofanov, I. G., Matthiä, D., et al. (2023) · Space Weather · doi:10.1029/2022sw003344 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Self-citationNowcasting Solar Energetic Particle Events for Mars Missions
Löwe, J. L., Khaksarighiri, S., Wimmer-Schweingruber, R. F., Hassler, D. M., Ehresmann, B., Guo, J., Reitz, G., Berger, T., Matthiä, D., Zeitlin, C. J., et al. (2025) · Space Weather · doi:10.1029/2025sw004372 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationModeling the effectiveness of radiation shielding materials for astronaut protection on Mars
Gakis, D., & Atri, D. (2024) · The European Physical Journal Plus · doi:10.1140/epjp/s13360-024-05519-y · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Guo, J., S. O. E. A. S. S., F. Wimmer-Schweingruber, R., Dumbovicx, M., Heber, B., Wang, Y., C. A. O. S. C. F. E. I. C. P., I. O. E. A. A. P., & H. O. (2020) · Earth and Planetary Physics · doi:10.26464/epp2020007 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationKhaksarighiri, S., Guo, J., Wimmer-Schweingruber, R. F., Löffler, S., Ehresmann, B., Matthiä, D., Hassler, D. M., Zeitlin, C. J., & Berger, T. (2023) · Journal of Geophysical Research Planets · doi:10.1029/2022je007644 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationSingh, D., Sinha, R. K., Singh, P., Roy, N., & Mukherjee, S. (2022) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2021.0013 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Semkova, J., Benghin, V. V., Guo, J., Zhang, J., Pieve, F. D., Krastev, K., Matviichuk, Y. N., Tomov, B., Shurshakov, V., Drobyshev, S., et al. (2022) · Life Sciences in Space Research · doi:10.1016/j.lssr.2022.08.007 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationKöhler, J., Wimmer-Schweingruber, R. F., Appel, J. K., Ehresmann, B., Zeitlin, C. J., Hassler, D. M., Reitz, G., Brinza, D. E., Böttcher, S. I., Böhm, E., et al. (2016) · Annales Geophysicae · doi:10.5194/angeo-34-133-2016 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationARAMIS: a Martian radiative environment model built from GEANT4 simulations
Charpentier, G., Ruffenach, M., Benacquista, R., Ecoffet, R., Cappe, A., Dossat, C., Varotsou, A., Cintas, H., Paillet, A., Boyer, L., et al. (2024) · Journal of Space Weather and Space Climate · doi:10.1051/swsc/2024032 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Operational Conditions and In Situ Resources for Mars Surface Exploration
Lotto, M. A., Klaus, D. M., & Hynek, B. M. (2018) · New Space · doi:10.1089/space.2018.0019 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Mars Ground Level Enhancements in the Context of the Solar Energetic Particle Clock
Posner, A., Richardson, I. G., & Zeitlin, C. J. (2025) · Solar Physics · doi:10.1007/s11207-025-02482-4 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationRadiation Transport Through the Martian Atmosphere as a Function of the Zenith Angle
Khaksarighiri, S., Phipps, P. H., Wimmer‐Schweingruber, R. F., Stubbs, T. J., Looper, M. D., Guo, J., Charpentier, G., Ehresmann, B., Löwe, J. L., Matthiä, D., et al. (2025) · Journal of Geophysical Research Planets · doi:10.1029/2025je009352 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationInfluence of Mars Topography on Neutral Surface Radiation: Modeling and MSL/RAD Observations
Charpentier, G., Ehresmann, B., Guo, J., Khaksarighiri, S., Benacquista, R., Malapert, J.-C., Ecoffet, R., Mekki, J., Paillet, A., Löffler, S., et al. (2026) · Journal of Geophysical Research Planets · doi:10.1029/2025je009336 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationASSESSMENT OF RADIATION EXPOSURE IN MANNED MISSIONS TO MARS FOR THREE PROFILES
Casimiro, A. L., Sampaio, J. M., & Gonçalves, P. (2018) · RAD Association Journal · doi:10.21175/radj.2018.01.006 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Observed diurnal variations in Mars Science Laboratory Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons passive mode data
Tate, C. G., Moersch, J. E., Jun, I., Mitrofanov, I. G., Litvak, M. L., Boynton, W. V., Drake, D. M., Fedosov, F., Golovin, D. V., Hardgrove, C. J., et al. (2018) · Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A Accelerators Spectrometers Detectors and Associated Equipment · doi:10.1016/j.nima.2018.02.100
Curiosity’s Environmental Sensing Instruments
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The Constraint of Crewed Mars Missions Based on Current Radiation Dose Measurements
Zhang, C., Liu, W. M., Guo, J., Dobynde, M. I., & Wimmer-Schweingruber, R. F. (2026) · Space Weather · doi:10.1029/2025sw004724
Self-citationGuo, J., Tian, C., Charpentier, G., Wimmer-Schweingruber, R. F., Khaksarighiri, S., Pan, L., Löwe, J. L., Ehresmann, B., Hassler, D. M., Zeitlin, C. J., et al. (2026) · Journal of Geophysical Research Planets · doi:10.1029/2026je009704
Self-citationMartian Proton Albedo as Signature of Near‐Surface Water
Löwe, J. L., Wimmer-Schweingruber, R. F., Khaksarighiri, S., Löffler, S., Nikiforov, S., Djachkova, M. V., Guo, J., Charpentier, G., Ehresmann, B., Hassler, D. M., et al. (2026) · Journal of Geophysical Research Planets · doi:10.1029/2026je009697
Self-citation
- Authors
- Rafkin, S. C. R., Zeitlin, C., Ehresmann, B., Hassler, D., Guo, J., Köhler, J., Wimmer‐Schweingruber, R., Gomez‐Elvira, J., Harri, A., Kahanpää, H., Brinza, D. E., Weigle, G., Böttcher, S., Böhm, E., Burmeister, S., Martin, C., Reitz, G., Cucinotta, F. A., Kim, M., Grinspoon, D., Bullock, M. A., Posner, A., & the MSL Science Team
- Affiliations
- Southwest Research Institute (US)
- Southwest Research Institute Boulder Colorado USA
- Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel (DE)
- Department of Extraterrestrial Physics Christian‐Albrecths University Kiel Germany
- Centro de Astrobiología (CSIC‐INTA) Madrid Spain
- Finnish Meteorological Institute (FI)
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory (US)
- Big Head Endian Burden Kansas USA
- Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e. V. (DLR) (DE)
- University of Nevada, Las Vegas (US)
- Universities Space Research Association (US)
- Library of Congress (US)
- National Aeronautics and Space Administration (US)
- Corresponding author
- Rafkin, Scot C. R.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets
- Publisher
- American Geophysical Union (AGU)
- Published
- 2014-06
- Volume
- 119
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1345-1358
- ISSN
- 2169-9097 (ISSN-L)
- 2169-9100
- OpenAlex
- W2159904434
- Cited by
- 56
- References
- 43
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 4 · 2015: 5 · 2014: 2
- FWCI
- 3.05
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Geophysical Research Planets (publishedVersion)
- DIGITAL.CSIC (Spanish National Research Council (CSIC)) (submittedVersion)
- elib (German Aerospace Center) (submittedVersion)
- Smithsonian Digital Repository (Smithsonian Institution) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- DLR's Space Administration (50QM0501, 50QM1201)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Planetary Science and Exploration
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Ionosphere and magnetosphere dynamics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astro and Planetary Science
- Keywords
- diurnal variation, Radiation Assessment Detector, Curiosity rover, atmospheric shielding, heavy ions, Mars atmosphere
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