Measurements of the neutron spectrum on the Martian surface with MSL/RAD
Open accessAbstract
The Radiation Assessment Detector (RAD), onboard the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) rover Curiosity, measures the energetic charged and neutral particles and the radiation dose rate on the surface of Mars. An important factor for determining the biological impact of the Martian surface radiation is the specific contribution of neutrons, with their deeper penetration depth and ensuing high biological effectiveness. This is very difficult to measure quantitatively, resulting in considerable uncertainties in the total radiation dose. In contrast to charged particles, neutral particles (neutrons and gamma rays) are generally only measured indirectly. Measured spectra are a complex convolution of the incident particle spectrum with the detector response function and must be unfolded. We apply an inversion method (based on a maximum likelihood estimation) to calculate the neutron and gamma spectra from the RAD neutral particle measurements. Here we show the first spectra on the surface of Mars and compare them to theoretical predictions. The measured neutron spectrum (ranging from 8 to 740 MeV) translates into a radiation dose rate of 14±4 μ Gy/d and a dose equivalent rate of 61±15 μ Sv/d. This corresponds to 7% of the measured total surface dose rate and 10% of the biologically relevant surface dose equivalent rate on Mars. Measuring the Martian neutron and gamma spectra is an essential step for determining the mutagenic influences to past or present life at or beneath the Martian surface as well as the radiation hazard for future human exploration, including the shielding design of a potential habitat.
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- Findingown data
Within the given errors, the power law fit and the binwise inversion of the gamma and neutron spectra agree very well.
“Within the given errors, the power law fit and the binwise inversion of the gamma and neutron spectrum agree very well.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: In the relevant energy range, the Martian gamma and neutron spectra can be approximated by power laws.
- Findingown data
For S_gamma = 1.43 and S_n = 0.72, the measurements in D and E can be reproduced very well.
“For the values obtained in section 3, S 𝛾 = 1.43, S n = 0.72 (Figure A1, blue), the measurements in D and E can be reproduced very well.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: In the relevant energy range, the Martian gamma and neutron spectra can be approximated by power laws.
- Findingreasoning
The last three bins of the gamma spectrum are increased compared to the power law fit and Planetocosmics prediction.
“However, the last three bins of the gamma spectrum are increased compared to the power law fit and Planetocosmics prediction.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The Planetocosmics simulation follows the calculated gamma spectrum remarkably well.
“The Planetocosmics simulation follows the calculated gamma spectrum remarkably well.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingreasoning
The last bin of the neutron spectrum shows a significantly higher intensity.
“This can be observed in the neutron spectrum, where the last bin shows a significantly higher intensity.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- Findingown data
The slope of the Planetocosmics neutron spectrum is steeper than that of the measured neutron spectrum.
“The slope of the Planetocosmics neutron spectrum is steeper than that of the measurement.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationown data
The discrepancy between simulation and measurement is not caused by an incorrect calibration or physics list.
“Since the spectrum did not change significantly for all tested situations, we believe that the discrepancy of simulation and measurement is not caused by an incorrect calibration or physics list.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The discrepancy between the Planetocosmics simulation and the measurement is not just an effect of the crude power law estimation.
“This discrepancy is not only found via power law fit but also for the binwise inversion, which shows that this is not just an effect of the crude power law estimation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductnone given
Adding an uncertainty of 10% for calibration values creates an uncertainty of 20% to dose and dose equivalent in the binwise inversion.
“Adding an uncertainty of 10% for the calibration values creates an uncertainty of 20% to dose and dose equivalent.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
The incident gamma and neutron spectra can be obtained via an inversion method.
“In Köhler et al. [2011] and Köhler [2012], we demonstrated that the incident gamma/neutron spectra can be obtained via an inversion method.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Köhler et al., 2011 source
- cites Köhler, 2012
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
Albedo neutrons produced in the top layer of Martian soil are abundant.
“This is particularly true on the surface of Mars, where”
- Also stated in: § 1.1. Motivation for Measuring Gamma and Neutron Spectra · plain
“albedo”
- Also stated in: § 1.1. Motivation for Measuring Gamma and Neutron Spectra · plain
“neutrons produced in the top layer of soil are abundant [Feldman et al., 2002].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Feldman et al., 2002 source
- Also stated in: § 1.1. Motivation for Measuring Gamma and Neutron Spectra · plain
- Study design and conductcitation
The fidelity of GEANT4 in describing the detector response to neutral particles was verified in several calibration runs at Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt and The Svedberg Laboratory.
“The fidelity of GEANT4 in describing the response of the detector to neutral particles correctly was verified in several calibration runs at Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt and The Svedberg Laboratory [Hassler et al., 2012].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Hassler et al., 2012 source
- Study design and conductcitation
QGSP_BERT_HP was used to obtain the detector response function based on comparison with calibration measurements.
“Based on these results, QGSP_BERT_HP was used to obtain the DRF.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Köhler et al., 2011 source
- Study design and conductreasoning
Electronic and optical noise is included in the simulation to ensure that in simulation and measurement the same fraction of particles will be accepted or rejected as neutrals.
“To replicate the behavior of the scintillator and the detector electronics, electronic and optical noise is included in the simulation.This ensures that in simulation and measurement the same fraction of particles will be accepted or rejected as neutrals.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The difference in dose equivalent rate between inversion results and simulation can be explained by the increased neutron intensity above 100 MeV.
“The difference in dose equivalent rate between inversion results and simulation can be explained by the increased neutron intensity above 100 MeV.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductcitation
The detector response function used was obtained using the GEANT4 Monte Carlo code.
“The DRF used here, shown in Figure 2, was obtained using the GEANT4 Monte Carlo code [Agostinelli et al., 2003].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Agostinelli et al., 2003 source
- Premisecitation
Interactions of Galactic Cosmic Ray ions produce neutrons over a broad energy range, from eV to GeV.
“Interactions of GCR ions produce neutrons over a broad energy range, from eV to GeV [Hess et al., 1959].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Hess et al., 1959 source
- Study design and conductown data
The inversion results are stable to changes in the calibration constants up to 10%.
“The results are stable to changes in the calibration constants up to 10%.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- May combine two claims. 19
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 2
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe power law inverted spectrum explains the neutral particle measurements remarkably well, with a reduced chi2 value of 0.96 excluding high-energy bins with 0 counts.
“Although only a simple power law was fitted, the inverted spectrum explains the measurements remarkably well.Calculating the reduced 𝜒 2 value, excluding high-energy bins with 0 counts, yields 0.96.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: In the relevant energy range, the Martian gamma and neutron spectra can be approximated by power laws.
May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataThe power law inversion of the MSL/RAD neutral particle measurements yields spectral indices S_gamma = 1.43 and S_n = 0.72 ± 0.07.
“For the values obtained in section 3, S 𝛾 = 1.43, S n = 0.72 (Figure A1, blue), the measurements in D and E can be reproduced very well.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: In the relevant energy range, the Martian gamma and neutron spectra can be approximated by power laws.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe power law inversion yields intensities I_gamma = 1.6 ± 0.6 /(cm2 s MeV) and I_N = 0.08 ± 0.03 /(cm2 s MeV).
“I 𝛾 = 1.6 ± 0.6∕(cm 2 s MeV))”
- Also stated in: § Appendix A: Sensitivity of the Measurements to Different Input Spectra · plain
“I N = 0.08 ± 0.03∕(cm 2 s MeV))”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: In the relevant energy range, the Martian gamma and neutron spectra can be approximated by power laws.
- Also stated in: § Appendix A: Sensitivity of the Measurements to Different Input Spectra · plain
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataFor an artificial measurement based on S_gamma = 1 and S_n = 1, the measurement in E can again be explained fairly well, but the simulated measurement in D shows fewer counts at higher energies.
“For an artificial measurement, based on to S 𝛾 = 1, S n = 1 (Figure A1, magenta), the measurement in E can again be explained fairly well, but the simulated measurement in D shows again less counts at higher energies.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: In the relevant energy range, the Martian gamma and neutron spectra can be approximated by power laws.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataIf the gamma spectral index is decreased to S_gamma = 1, the measurement in D can still be reproduced fairly well, but the simulated measurement in E shows fewer counts at lower energies.
“If instead the steepness of the gamma spectra is decreased to S 𝛾 = 1 (Figure A1, cyan), the measurement in D can still be reproduced fairly well, but the simulated measurement in E shows less counts at lower energies.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: In the relevant energy range, the Martian gamma and neutron spectra can be approximated by power laws.
May combine two claims.
FindingcitationFor the neutron spectrum in the energy range 8-740 MeV, the dose equivalent rate is 61 ± 2 μSv/d and the dose rate is 14 ± 1 μGy/d.
“Calculating dose and dose equivalent for the neutron spectrum for the energies 8-740 MeV, using United States Nuclear Regulatory Comission [2009], yields Dose equivalent rate ∶= 61 ± 2 μSv/d Dose rate ∶ 14 ± 1 μGy/d”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites United States Nuclear Regulatory Comission [2009]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Rests on an assumption: In the relevant energy range, the Martian gamma and neutron spectra can be approximated by power laws.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe reduced chi2 values for a wide range of S_gamma and S_n show a clear minimum that agrees with the values obtained in section 3.
“Although there is a diagonal structure of small reduced 𝜒 2 values, a clear minimum, which agrees with the values obtained in section 3 can be identified.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: In the relevant energy range, the Martian gamma and neutron spectra can be approximated by power laws.
May combine two claims.
FindingreasoningFor the Planetocosmics simulation for all neutron energies above 3 MeV, the dose rate is 16 ± 2 μGy/d and the dose equivalent is 80 ± 6 μSv/d.
“To get an estimate of the dose rate contribution from the”
- Also stated in: § 5. Discussion/Conclusion · plain
“This yields a dose rate of 16±2 μGy/d and a dose equivalent of 80 ± 6 μSv/d.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Also stated in: § 5. Discussion/Conclusion · plain
May combine two claims.
FindingcitationNeutrons in the energy range 8-740 MeV create 7% of the total surface dose rate and 10% of the biological relevant surface dose equivalent rate on Mars.
“Comparing the neutron induced dose with the total dose from Hassler et al. [2014] shows that the neutrons (in the energy range 8-740 MeV) create 7% of the total surface dose rate and 10% of the biological relevant surface dose equivalent rate on Mars.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Hassler et al. [2014] source
May combine two claims.
FindingreasoningThe neutron and gamma spectra both show small jumps at approximately 20 and 40 MeV, respectively.
“The neutron and the gamma spectrum both show small jumps at ≈ 20 and ≈ 40 MeV, respectively.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
FindingreasoningConsidering uncertainties in anticoincidence efficiency and calibration, the estimated error is ±0.16 for S_gamma and ±0.1 for S_n.
“Considering uncertainties in AC efficiency and calibration, we estimate an error of ± 0.16 for S 𝛾 and ± 0.1 for S n .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataIf the neutron spectral index is increased to S_n = 1, the measurement in E can still be explained fairly well, but the simulated measurement in D shows fewer counts than the real measurement at higher energies.
“If the steepness of the neutron spectra is increased to S n = 1 (Figure A1, green), the measurement in E can still be explained fairly well, but the simulated measurement in D shows less counts than the”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: In the relevant energy range, the Martian gamma and neutron spectra can be approximated by power laws.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe measured neutron fluxes are larger than predicted by Planetocosmics for energies above 100 MeV but smaller for energies below 100 MeV.
“The measured fluxes are larger than predicted by Planetocosmics for energies above 100 MeV but smaller for energies below 100 MeV.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningThe origin of the jump at 20 MeV can possibly be explained by GEANT4 neutron interactions switching from high-precision data to theoretical models at 20 MeV.
“The origin of the jump at 20 MeV can possibly be explained by the GEANT4 neutron interactions, which switch from high-precision data to theoretical models at 20 MeV.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataBecause the MSL/RAD neutral particle measurements do not follow Poisson statistics exactly, a minimization function based on Gaussian statistics was selected.
“However, since the MSL/RAD neutral particle measurements do not follow Poisson statistics exactly (see section 2.2), we selected a minimization function based on Gaussian statistics.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Study design and conductreasoningAdding the 10% uncertainty for calibration values adds an uncertainty of 15% to dose and dose equivalent in the power law inversion, which is not included in the quoted values.
“However, adding the 10% uncertainty for the calibration values, adds an uncertainty of 15% to dose and dose equivalent, which is not included in the above values.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataThe inversion is not dominated by any model effect because the resulting spectra are not sensitive to different GEANT4 models for high-energy neutrons.
“However, since the resulting spectra are not sensitive to different GEANT4 models for high-energy neutrons, we do not believe that the inversion is dominated by any model effect.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe neutron spectrum at the Martian surface can be thought of as consisting of neutrons with a very broad energy range coming from above and comparatively low-energy neutrons coming from below.
“Thus, the neutron spectrum at the surface can be thought of as consisting of neutrons with a very broad energy range coming from above and comparatively low-energy neutrons coming from below.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningThe jumps at 40 MeV may be caused by the geometry of the E detector, which contains recoil protons created by neutrons up to 40 MeV for vertical or near-vertical trajectories.
“The jumps at 40 MeV may be caused by the geometry of the E detector, which contains the recoil protons, created by neutrons, up to 40 MeV for vertical or near-vertical trajectories.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Study design and conductreasoningThe event selection approach throws away exactly half the valid neutral particle events, and this method minimizes contamination of the measurement with charged particles.
“Using this approach means that we throw away exactly half the valid neutral particle events.This method has the advantage that the contamination of the measurement with charged particles is minimized.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Study design and conductreasoningThe errors represent uncertainties due to measurement statistics and the ill-posed nature of the inversion problem, but they do not represent uncertainties in the detector response function or calibration.
“This means that the errors represent the uncertainties due to the statistics of the measurement and the uncertainties introduced by the ill-posed nature of the inversion problem, but they do not represent the uncertainties in the DRF or the calibration.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
In the relevant energy range, the Martian gamma and neutron spectra can be approximated by power laws.
“In the relevant energy range, the gamma and neutron spectra can be approximated by power laws.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The approximately 10% difference between B and E dose rates is expected from the different detector responses to energetic charged particles, with a small additional neutron contribution to the E dose rate.
“The ~ 10% difference in dose rates is expected based on the different responses of the detectors to energetic charged particles.; there is also a small contribution to the E dose rate from high-energy neutrons (E > 6 MeV), on the order of a few percent of the total during solar quiet time (Köhler et al., 2014).”
From Analysis of the radiation hazard observed by RAD on the surface of Mars during the September 2017 solar particle event (2018) · cites this paper as Köhler et al., 2014
Section 2.1 says neutrons can deposit energy in detector E, and section 5 reports that 8–740 MeV neutrons account for 7% of the total Martian surface dose rate. The paper does not establish that neutrons above 6 MeV contribute a few percent specifically to E’s dose rate during solar-quiet time, or explain an approximately 10% difference between B and E dose rates by their responses to energetic charged particles. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Response-matrix dimensions are reversed
MinorThe vector definitions give each detector measurement k elements and each particle spectrum l elements. A matrix mapping a spectrum to a detector measurement must therefore be k × l, not l × k.
“where 𝐀 D∕E,𝛾∕N is a l × k matrix which describes the response of D/E to gamma rays/neutrons.”
“⃗ z = (z D,1 ..., z D,k , z E,1 , ...z E,k ), and(2) ⃗ f = (f 𝛾,1 ..., f ,𝛾,l , f n,1 , ...f n,l ),(3)”
Two values are given for the fitted gamma spectral index
MinorThe appendix identifies 1.43 as the gamma index obtained in section 3, but the Figure A1 caption identifies the power-law inversion result as 1.41. The stated values differ at the printed precision.
“For the values obtained in section 3, S 𝛾 = 1.43, S n = 0.72 (Figure A1, blue), the measurements in D and E can be reproduced very well.”
“The result from the power law inversion (S 𝛾 = 1.41, S n = 0.72) shows the best agreement, the other results show deviations either at low energies in E or at higher energies in D.”
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Self-citationRafkin, S. C. R., Zeitlin, C., Ehresmann, B., Hassler, D., Guo, J., Köhler, J., Wimmer‐Schweingruber, R., Gomez‐Elvira, J., Harri, A., Kahanpää, H., et al. (2014) · Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets · doi:10.1002/2013je004525 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Self-citationThe lunar lander neutron and dosimetry (LND) experiment on Chang'E 4
Wimmer-Schweingruber, R. F., Yu, J., Böttcher, S. I., Zhang, S., Burmeister, S., Lohf, H., Guo, J., Xu, Z., Schuster, B., Seimetz, L., et al. (2020) · Space Science Reviews · doi:10.1007/s11214-020-00725-3 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“The process to obtain fast neutron spectra is based on similar work already performed for MSL/RAD (Köhler et al. 2014; Guo et al. 2017).”
MethodSelf-citationGuo, J., Zeitlin, C., Wimmer-Schweingruber, R. F., Rafkin, S., Hassler, D. M., Posner, A., Heber, B., Köhler, J., Ehresmann, B., Appel, J. K., et al. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/810/1/24 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“The CsI crystal together with a plastic (BC-432m) scintillator (namely detector E) are enclosed in a highly efficient anticoincidence in order to measure the neutral radiation (Köhler et al. 2014).”
MethodSelf-citationEhresmann, B., Zeitlin, C. J., Hassler, D. M., Matthiä, D., Guo, J., Wimmer-Schweingruber, R. F., Appel, J. K., Brinza, D. E., Rafkin, S., Böttcher, S. I., et al. (2017) · Life Sciences in Space Research · doi:10.1016/j.lssr.2017.07.004 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Self-citationMeasurements of the neutron spectrum in transit to Mars on the Mars Science Laboratory
Köhler, J., Ehresmann, B., Zeitlin, C. J., Wimmer-Schweingruber, R. F., Hassler, D. M., Reitz, G., Brinza, D. E., Appel, J. K., Böttcher, S. I., Böhm, E., et al. (2015) · Life Sciences in Space Research · doi:10.1016/j.lssr.2015.03.001 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Self-citationHeilbronn, L. H., Borak, T. B., Townsend, L. W., Tsai, P.-E., Burnham, C. A., & McBeth, R. A. (2015) · Life Sciences in Space Research · doi:10.1016/j.lssr.2015.10.005 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Implementation and validation of the GEANT4/AtRIS code to model the radiation environment at Mars
Guo, J., Banjac, S., Röstel, L., Terasa, J. C., Herbst, K., Heber, B., & Wimmer-Schweingruber, R. F. (2019) · Journal of Space Weather and Space Climate · doi:10.1051/swsc/2018051 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Self-citationZeitlin, C., Hassler, D. M., Guo, J., Ehresmann, B., Wimmer‐Schweingruber, R. F., Rafkin, S. C. R., Freiherr von Forstner, J. L., Lohf, H., Berger, T., Matthiae, D., et al. (2018) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2018gl077760 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“…in dose rates is expected based on the different responses of the detectors to energetic charged particles; there is also a small contribution to the E dose rate from high-energy neutrons (E > 6 MeV), on the order of a few percent of the total during solar quiet time (Köhler et al., 2014).”
BackgroundSelf-citationVariations of dose rate observed by MSL/RAD in transit to Mars
Guo, J., Zeitlin, C., Wimmer-Schweingruber, R. F., Hassler, D. M., Posner, A., Heber, B., Köhler, J., Rafkin, S., Ehresmann, B., Appel, J. K., et al. (2015) · Astronomy & Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201525680 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“The separation and reconstruction ofγ-ray and neutron energy spectra on the Martian surface measured by RAD have been accomplished using inversion methods (Köhler et al. 2014).”
MethodSelf-citationCalibration and Characterization of the Radiation Assessment Detector (RAD) on Curiosity
Zeitlin, C., Hassler, D. M., Wimmer-Schweingruber, R. F., Ehresmann, B., Appel, J., Berger, T., Böhm, E., Böttcher, S., Brinza, D. E., Burmeister, S., et al. (2016) · Space Science Reviews · doi:10.1007/s11214-016-0303-y · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Self-citationEhresmann, B., Hassler, D. M., Zeitlin, C., Guo, J., Wimmer‐Schweingruber, R. F., Matthiä, D., Lohf, H., Burmeister, S., Rafkin, S. C. R., Berger, T., et al. (2018) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2018gl077801 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“However, due to its high hydrogen content E is much more susceptible to neutrons which contribute most of the counts (see Figure 3 in Köhler et al., 2014).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationEhresmann, B., Hassler, D. M., Zeitlin, C. J., Guo, J., Köhler, J., Wimmer-Schweingruber, R. F., Appel, J. K., Brinza, D. E., Rafkin, S., Böttcher, S. I., et al. (2016) · Life Sciences in Space Research · doi:10.1016/j.lssr.2016.07.001 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Self-citationRadiation Measurements Performed with Active Detectors Relevant for Human Space Exploration
Narici, L., Berger, T., Matthiä, D., & Reitz, G. (2015) · Frontiers in Oncology · doi:10.3389/fonc.2015.00273 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Self-citationMeasurements of Forbush decreases at Mars: both by MSL on ground and by MAVEN in orbit
Guo, J., Lillis, R., Wimmer-Schweingruber, R. F., Zeitlin, C., Simonson, P., Rahmati, A., Posner, A., Papaioannou, A., Lundt, N., Lee, C. O., et al. (2018) · Astronomy & Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201732087 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“…phase (Zeitlin et al. 2013; Posner et al. 2013; Guo et al. 2015a; Ehresmann et al. 2016) and later on the surface of Mars since the landing of MSL in August 2012 (Hassler et al. 2014; Ehresmann et al. 2014; Rafkin et al. 2014; Köhler et al. 2014; Wimmer-Schweingruber et al. 2015; Guo et al. 2015b).”
BackgroundSelf-citationImplementation and validation of the GEANT4/AtRIS code to model the radiation environment at Mars
Guo, J., Banjac, S., Röstel, L., Terasa, J. C., Herbst, K., Heber, B., & Wimmer-Schweingruber, R. F. (2019) · Springer Link (Chiba Institute of Technology) · doi:10.1051/swsc/2018051/pdf · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Self-citationBacca, N., Zhang, C., Paul, T., et al. (2022) · Journal of materials research/Pratt's guide to venture capital sources · doi:10.1557/s43578-022-00708-w · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Guo, J., Guo, J., Dobynde, M. I., Wang, Y., & Wimmer-Schweingruber, R. F. (2022) · Journal of Geophysical Research Planets · doi:10.1029/2021je007157 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“the modeled detector response functions to invert the measured histogram into expected neutron flux reaching the RAD detector (Köhler et al., 2014).”
BackgroundSelf-citationMatthiä, D., & Berger, T. (2017) · Life Sciences in Space Research · doi:10.1016/j.lssr.2017.03.005 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Measurements of the neutral particle spectra on Mars by MSL/RAD from 2015-11-15 to 2016-01-15
Guo, J., Zeitlin, C., Wimmer-Schweingruber, R., Hassler, D. M., Köhler, J., Ehresmann, B., Böttcher, S., Böhm, E., & Brinza, D. E. (2017) · Life Sciences in Space Research · doi:10.1016/j.lssr.2017.06.001 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“ing factor for each priority bin was determined by the ratio of the number of events in that bin (as recorded in the onboard software) to the number actually telemetered. Subsequent to publication of [9], it was discovered that the count kept onboard included a category of events that should have been excluded, and th…”
MethodInfluentialSelf-citationNair, S., Engelbrecht, M., Miles, X., Ndimba, R. J., Fisher, R., du Plessis, P., Bolcaen, J., Nieto-Camero, J., de Kock, E. A., & Vandevoorde, C. (2019) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms20215350 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Space Weather on the Surface of Mars: Impact of the September 2017 Events
Hassler, D. M., Zeitlin, C., Ehresmann, B., Wimmer‐Schweingruber, R. F., Guo, J., Matthiä, D., Rafkin, S., Berger, T., & Reitz, G. (2018) · Space Weather · doi:10.1029/2018sw001959 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Self-citationReady functions for calculating the Martian radiation environment
Guo, J., Wimmer-Schweingruber, R. F., Grande, M., Lee-Payne, Z., & Matthiä, D. (2019) · Journal of Space Weather and Space Climate · doi:10.1051/swsc/2019004 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Self-citationMSL-RAD radiation environment measurements
Guo, J., Zeitlin, C., Wimmer-Schweingruber, R. F., Hassler, D. M., Ehresmann, B., Köhler, J., Böhm, E., Böttcher, S., Brinza, D., Burmeister, S., et al. (2015) · Radiation Protection Dosimetry · doi:10.1093/rpd/ncv297 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“(3), an inversion method is used to reconstruct the neutron spectra on the surface of Mars and estimated the resulting neutron dose to be 14 + 4 mGy d(21) and a dose equivalent rate of 61 + 15 mGy d(21).”
MethodSelf-citationPapaioannou, A., Belov, A., Abunina, M., Guo, J., Anastasiadis, A., Wimmer-Schweingruber, R. F., Eroshenko, E., Melkumyan, A., Abunin, A., Heber, B., et al. (2019) · Solar Physics · doi:10.1007/s11207-019-1454-2 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Self-citationMcKenna-Lawlor, S. M. P., Bhardwaj, A., Ferrari, F., Kuznetsov, N. V., Lal, A. K., Li, Y., Nagamatsu, A., Ныммик, Р. А., Panasyuk, M., Petrov, V., et al. (2014) · Acta Astronautica · doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2014.11.009 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“An inversion method (based on a maximum-likelihood estimation) was used in [20] to calculate neutron and gamma spectra from RAD neutral particle measurements and the first spectra thereby derived were compared with theoretical predictions.”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationComparisons of High‐Linear Energy Transfer Spectra on the ISS and in Deep Space
Zeitlin, C. J., Narici, L., Rios, R. R., Rizzo, A., Stoffle, N., Hassler, D. M., Ehresmann, B., Wimmer-Schweingruber, R. F., Guo, J., Schwadron, N. A., et al. (2019) · Space Weather · doi:10.1029/2018sw002103 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“400 Zeitlin, Hassler, et al. (2013) and Kohler et al. (2015), and several measurements made on the surface of Mars have also been reported (Ehresmann et al., 2014; Guo et al., 2015; Hassler et al., 2014; Köhler et al., 2014; Rafkin et al., 2014; Wimmer‐Schweingruber et al., 2015).”
BackgroundSelf-citationSemkova, J., Koleva, R., Benghin, V. V., Krastev, K., Matviichuk, Y. N., Tomov, B., Maltchev, S., Dachev, T. P., Bankov, N. G., Mitrofanov, I. G., et al. (2023) · Life Sciences in Space Research · doi:10.1016/j.lssr.2023.03.006 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Natural Radiation Shielding on Mars Measured With the MSL/RAD Instrument
Ehresmann, B., Hassler, D. M., Zeitlin, C., Guo, J., Wimmer‐Schweingruber, R. F., Khaksari, S., & Loeffler, S. (2021) · Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets · doi:10.1029/2021je006851 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Here, we are using the combination of the RAD neutral particle counters of detectors D and E which are both to varying degrees capable of detecting both neutrons and gamma-rays (Köhler et al., 2014).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationMars neutron radiation environment from HEND/Odyssey and DAN/MSL observations
Litvak, M. L., Sanin, A. B., Mitrofanov, I. G., Bakhtin, B. N., Jun, I., Sierra, L. M. M., Носов, А. В., & Perkhov, A. S. (2020) · Planetary and Space Science · doi:10.1016/j.pss.2020.104866 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Patel, Z. S., Huff, J. L., Saha, J., Wang, M., Blattnig, S. R., Wu, H., & Cucinotta, F. A. (2015) · NASA STI Repository (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Studies of the radiation environment on the Mars surface using the Geant4 toolkit
Chen, J., Yun, S., Dong, T., Ren, Z., & Zhang, X. (2022) · Nuclear Science and Techniques · doi:10.1007/s41365-022-00987-2 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Sukumaran, A. K., Zhang, C., Rengifo, S., et al. (2023) · Surface and Coatings Technology · doi:10.1016/j.surfcoat.2023.130300 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Mars science laboratory radiation assessment detector (MSL/RAD) modeling workshop proceedings
Hassler, D. M., Norbury, J. W., & Reitz, G. (2017) · Life Sciences in Space Research · doi:10.1016/j.lssr.2017.06.004 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Self-citationObservations of neutron radiation environment during Odyssey cruise to Mars
Litvak, M. L., Mitrofanov, I. G., Sanin, A. B., Bakhtin, B. N., Golovin, D. V., & Zeitlin, C. J. (2021) · Life Sciences in Space Research · doi:10.1016/j.lssr.2021.03.003 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Pivot Energy of Solar Energetic Particles Affecting the Martian Surface Radiation Environment
Guo, J., Wimmer-Schweingruber, R. F., Wang, Y., Grande, M., Matthiä, D., Zeitlin, C., Ehresmann, B., & Hassler, D. M. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ab3ec2 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationFlores-McLaughlin, J. (2017) · Life Sciences in Space Research · doi:10.1016/j.lssr.2017.07.007 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Unfolding the Neutron Flux Spectrum on the Surface of Mars Using the MSL‐RAD and Odyssey‐HEND Data
Sierra, L. M. M., Jun, I., Ehresmann, B., Zeitlin, C. J., Guo, J., Litvak, M. L., HARSHMAN, K. P., Hassler, D. M., Mitrofanov, I. G., Matthiä, D., et al. (2023) · Space Weather · doi:10.1029/2022sw003344 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“(2014) reported an initial total dose equivalent rate of 640 ± 120 μSv/d using RAD measurements for the first year of MSL (August 2012–August 2014).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationCoussot, G., Moreau, T., Faye, C., Vigier, F., Baqué, M., Postollec, A. L., Incerti, S., Dobrijévic, M., & Vandenabeele‐Trambouze, O. (2016) · International Journal of Astrobiology · doi:10.1017/s1473550416000173 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“We also decided to perform neutron experiments, as neutrons are abundant on Mars’ surface due to particles interactions with Mars’s atmosphere and regolith (Hassler et al. 2012; Köhler et al. 2014).”
MethodNowcasting Solar Energetic Particle Events for Mars Missions
Löwe, J. L., Khaksarighiri, S., Wimmer-Schweingruber, R. F., Hassler, D. M., Ehresmann, B., Guo, J., Reitz, G., Berger, T., Matthiä, D., Zeitlin, C. J., et al. (2025) · Space Weather · doi:10.1029/2025sw004372 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“In addition to detecting charged particles (cf. (Ehresmann et al., 2014)) and neutral particles (cf. (Guo, Zeitlin, et al., 2017; Köhler et al., 2014)), MSL/RAD also measures dosimetric quantities such as the total absorbed ionizing dose rate and Linear Energy Transfer (LET) spectra.”
Self-citationKhaksarighiri, S., Guo, J., Wimmer-Schweingruber, R. F., Narici, L., & Lohf, H. (2020) · Life Sciences in Space Research · doi:10.1016/j.lssr.2020.07.003 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationGuo, J., S. O. E. A. S. S., F. Wimmer-Schweingruber, R., Dumbovicx, M., Heber, B., Wang, Y., C. A. O. S. C. F. E. I. C. P., I. O. E. A. A. P., & H. O. (2020) · Earth and Planetary Physics · doi:10.26464/epp2020007 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationKöhler, J., Wimmer-Schweingruber, R. F., Appel, J. K., Ehresmann, B., Zeitlin, C. J., Hassler, D. M., Reitz, G., Brinza, D. E., Böttcher, S. I., Böhm, E., et al. (2016) · Annales Geophysicae · doi:10.5194/angeo-34-133-2016 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationModeling the effectiveness of radiation shielding materials for astronaut protection on Mars
Gakis, D., & Atri, D. (2024) · The European Physical Journal Plus · doi:10.1140/epjp/s13360-024-05519-y · Cited by 7 · see citing works
ARAMIS: a Martian radiative environment model built from GEANT4 simulations
Charpentier, G., Ruffenach, M., Benacquista, R., Ecoffet, R., Cappe, A., Dossat, C., Varotsou, A., Cintas, H., Paillet, A., Boyer, L., et al. (2024) · Journal of Space Weather and Space Climate · doi:10.1051/swsc/2024032 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“To this end, Köhler et al. (2014) have carried out power-law inversion and full 16-bin inversion calculations to compute MSL-RAD neutron and gamma spectra, from 5 to 900 MeV.”
BackgroundMethodSingh, D., Sinha, R. K., Singh, P., Roy, N., & Mukherjee, S. (2022) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2021.0013 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“…that surfaces in the topographic lower areas are often under cast shadow and might offer protection from radiation (Zeitlin et al., 2013; Ehres-mann et al., 2014, 2016; Hassler et al., 2014; Ko¨hler et al., 2014; Rafkin et al., 2014; Guo et al., 2015; Matthia¨ et al., 2016; Slaba et al., 2017).”
Quantifying Degradations of Convolutional Neural Networks in Space Environments
Altland, E., Castellanos, J., Detwiler, J., et al. (2019) · doi:10.1109/ccaaw.2019.8904903 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“In each of four cases: (a) Earth surface [25], (b) Low-Earth Orbit (LEO) [26,27], (c) Moon surface [28,29], and Mars surface [30,31], the average expected lifetime of the CNN when exposed to the prevailing level of cosmic radiation is provided.”
BackgroundMedical Concerns with Space Radiation and Radiobiological Effects
Straume, T. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-03952-7_4 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
The solar particle event at Mars on 2024 May 20: neutron component of the radiation environment
Mitrofanov, I. G., Litvak, M. L., Sanin, A. B., Golovin, D. V., Nikiforov, S., Djachkova, M. V., Anikin, A. A., Lukyanov, N. V., Semkova, J., & Matviichuk, Y. N. (2025) · Acta Astronautica · doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2025.05.043 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Neutron emission on the surface of Mars
Mitrofanov, I. G., Litvak, M. L., Sanin, A. B., Golovin, D. V., Lisov, D., Nikiforov, S., & Yakovlev, V. V. (2024) · Acta Astronautica · doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2024.01.040 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Resilience Improvements for Space-Based Radio Frequency Machine Learning
Wong, L. J., Altland, E., Detwiler, J., Fermin, P., Kuzin, J. M., Moeliono, N., Abdalla, A. S., Headley, W. C., & Michaels, A. J. (2020) · International Symposium on Networks, Computers and Communications (ISNCC) · doi:10.1109/isncc49221.2020.9297212 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“…by using the candidate resilience methods when deployed, we calculate the average lifetime expectancy of the CNN when exposed to the levels of cosmic radiation found on/in (a) Earth’s surface [38], (b) Low-Earth Orbit (LEO) [39], [40], (c) the Moon’s surface [41], [42], and (d) Mars’ surface [43].”
MethodThe Impact of Space Radiation on Brains of Future Martian and Lunar Explorers
Li, Y., Guo, J., Khaksarighiri, S., Dobynde, M. I., Zhang, J., Liu, B., & Wimmer-Schweingruber, R. F. (2023) · Space Weather · doi:10.1029/2023sw003470 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“…low-energy neutrons (below about 10 MeV) from direct interactions, spallation collisions, or neutron evaporation can contribute significantly to the human-body effective dose which is a critical concern for human Mars/Moon missions (Adams et al., 2007; Köhler et al., 2014; Röstel et al., 2020).”
BackgroundSelf-citationUsing Forbush Decreases to Derive the Transit Time of ICMEs Propagating from 1 AU to Mars
von Forstner, J. L. F., Guo, J., Wimmer-Schweingruber, R. F., Hassler, D. M., Temmer, M., Dumbović, M., Jian, L. K., Appel, J. K., Čalogović, J., Ehresmann, B., et al. (2018) · Journal of Geophysical Research Space Physics · doi:10.1002/2017ja024700 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“2 RAD data and compensating for the diurnal variations RAD/MSL is an energetic particle detector and it has been carrying out radiation measurements on the surface of Mars since the landing of MSL in August 2012 [Hassler et al., 2014; Ehresmann et al., 2014; Rafkin et al., 2014; KÃűhler et al., 2014; Guo et al., 2015;…”
MethodSelf-citationEstimation of the Neutron Component of the Radiation Background in the Gale Crater on Mars
Mitrofanov, I. G., Litvak, M. L., Sanin, A. B., Semkova, I. V., & Dachevb, T. P. (2023) · Solar System Research · doi:10.31857/s0320930x23030076 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Neutron-induced single event upset simulation in Geant4 for three-dimensional die-stacked SRAM*
Mo, L., Ye, B., Liu, J., Luo, J., Sun, Y.-M., Cai, C., Li, D., Zhao, P., & He, Z. T. (2020) · Chinese Physics B · doi:10.1088/1674-1056/abccb3 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Estimation of the Neutron Component of the Radiation Background in the Gale Crater on Mars
Mitrofanov, I. G., Litvak, M. L., Sanin, A. B., Semkova, I. V., & Dachev, T. P. (2023) · Solar System Research · doi:10.1134/s0038094623030073 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Thus, if the dose at the bottom of the Gale crater is about 100 μSv/day, the dose in orbit (excluding the contribution of the dose from the spacecraft, which should be taken into account separately) above the Gale crater is only 25 μSv/day (see Table 1).”
BackgroundInfluentialZeitlin, C. J., Castro, A. J., Beard, K. B., Hayes, B., Abdelmelek, M., Laramore, D., Johnson, A. S., Stoffle, N., Wimmer-Schweingruber, R. F., Löffler, S., et al. (2023) · Life Sciences in Space Research · doi:10.1016/j.lssr.2023.06.002 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationPhysical Calibrations of the FREND Instrument Installed Onboard TGO Martian Orbiter
Malakhov, A., Mitrofanov, I. G., Litvak, M. L., et al. (2022) · Cosmic Research · doi:10.1134/s0010952522010099 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Exploration of Our Solar System
Czysz, P., Bruno, C., & Chudoba, B. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-54744-1_7
Medical and Radiobiological Effects from Space Radiation
Straume, T. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-02847-7_4-1
Medical Concerns with Space Radiation and Radiobiological Effects
Straume, T. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-02847-7_4-2
Semkova, J., Koleva, R., Benghin, V. V., Gopalswamy, N., Matviichuk, Y. N., Tomov, B., Krastev, K., Maltchev, S., Dachev, T. P., Bankov, N. G., et al. (2025) · Life Sciences in Space Research · doi:10.1016/j.lssr.2025.02.010 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Neutron radiation dosimetry on Mars
Litvak, M. L., Mitrofanov, I. G., Sanin, A. B., Golovin, D. V., Nikiforov, S., Lisov, D., & Yakovlev, V. V. (2025) · Acta Astronautica · doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2025.04.048
Martian Proton Albedo as Signature of Near‐Surface Water
Löwe, J. L., Wimmer-Schweingruber, R. F., Khaksarighiri, S., Löffler, S., Nikiforov, S., Djachkova, M. V., Guo, J., Charpentier, G., Ehresmann, B., Hassler, D. M., et al. (2026) · Journal of Geophysical Research Planets · doi:10.1029/2026je009697
“In addition to the primary dosimetric quantities (cf. Guo et al., 2015; Guo, Zeitlin, et al., 2021) and neutral particles (cf. Guo, Zeitlin, et al., 2017; Köhler et al., 2014), MSL/RAD also measures charged particles.”
Self-citationShogile, K., Wei, M., Zeeshan, M., et al. (2026) · Radiation Protection Dosimetry · doi:10.1093/rpd/ncag082
Self-citation
- Authors
- Köhler, J., Zeitlin, C., Ehresmann, B., Wimmer‐Schweingruber, R. F., Hassler, D. M., Reitz, G., Brinza, D. E., Weigle, G., Appel, J., Böttcher, S., Böhm, E., Burmeister, S., Guo, J., Martin, C., Posner, A., Rafkin, S., & Kortmann, O.
- Affiliations
- Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel (DE)
- Southwest Research Institute (US)
- Institute of Experimental and Applied Physics Christian‐Albrechts‐University Kiel Germany
- Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e. V. (DLR) (DE)
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory (US)
- Big Head Endian LLC Burden Kansas USA
- National Aeronautics and Space Administration (US)
- Space Sciences Laboratory (US)
- Corresponding author
- Köhler, J.
- Venue
- Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets
- Publisher
- American Geophysical Union (AGU)
- Published
- 2014-03
- Volume
- 119
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 594-603
- ISSN
- 2169-9097 (ISSN-L)
- 2169-9100
- OpenAlex
- W2015527110
- Cited by
- 71
- References
- 23
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 4
- FWCI
- 4.85
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Geophysical Research Planets (publishedVersion)
- elib (German Aerospace Center) (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Aeronautics and Space Administration (1273039)
- Southwest Research Institute
- Human Exploration and Operations Mission Directorate
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Planetary Science and Exploration
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pulmonary and Respiratory Medicine › Radiation Therapy and Dosimetry
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astro and Planetary Science
- Keywords
- neutron energy spectrum, Mars Science Laboratory, Curiosity rover, Radiation Assessment Detector, maximum likelihood inversion, radiation dose rate, dose equivalent rate, Mars habitability, radiation shielding design
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-11.
Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-11.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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