Breaking the Boring Billion: A Case for Solid‐Earth Processes as Drivers of System‐Scale Environmental Variability During the Mid‐Proterozoic
Open accessAbstract
Emplacement and weathering of large igneous provinces (LIPs) can have dramatic effects on global climate and biogeochemical systems. In the Phanerozoic, these events are often linked to expanding oceanic anoxia, widespread deposition of organic-rich shales, and metazoan extinctions. In the Precambrian, LIP activity would have had similar potential to perturb global systems, though the outcome may have differed given different starting conditions. Specifically, against a backdrop of mostly low oxygen conditions, Precambrian LIP emplacement may have stimulated oxygenation of the atmosphere and shallow oceans, which could have favored innovations among eukaryotic life. Here, we review the records of several oceanic-atmosphere redox proxies, summarize their utility, and compare them with the record of continental LIPs. While the mid-Proterozoic (1.8–0.8 Ga) is famous for long-term environmental stability, several independent proxies suggest the possibility that conditions were transiently more oxygenated at ~1.4 Ga. This time coincides roughly with a period of increased LIP activity that has been recently linked with widespread deposition of black shales. We explore the possibility that LIP-induced impacts on productivity might have favored organic matter burial, transient oxygenation, and potential advantages for aerobic life, focusing in particular on the feedbacks that maintained environmental balance for nearly a billion years. Our understanding of the evolution of Proterozoic environmental conditions is still nascent, but as records improve and we search for mechanisms that underpinned long-term stability or drove secular change, it is critical that the whole Earth system be considered.
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Oxygenation events during the boring billion could be related to activity in large igneous provinces and concomitant enhanced delivery of nutrients (P and trace metals) to the oceans.
“This and other possible oxygenation events could be more specifically related to activity in LIPs and concomitant enhanced delivery of nutrients to the oceans (P and trace metals in particular; Diamond et al., 2021).”
From Oxygenation, Life, and the Planetary System during Earth's Middle History: An Overview (2021) · cites this paper as Diamond et al., 2021
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Taverne, Y. J. H. J., Merkus, D., Bogers, A. J. J. C., Halliwell, B. B., Duncker, D. J., & Lyons, T. W. (2018) · BioEssays · doi:10.1002/bies.201700158 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Self-citationClosing in on the marine 238 U/ 235 U budget
Andersen, M. B., Vance, D., Morford, J. L., Bura‐Nakić, E., Breitenbach, S. F. M., & Och, L. M. (2015) · Chemical Geology · doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2015.10.041 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Sulfur isotope evidence for transient marine-shelf oxidation during the Ediacaran Shuram Excursion
Shi, W., Li, C., Luo, G., Huang, J., Algeo, T. J., Jin, C., Zhang, Z., & Cheng, M. (2018) · Geology · doi:10.1130/g39663.1 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Evidence for episodic oxygenation in a weakly redox-buffered deep mid-Proterozoic ocean
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Self-citationLarge Igneous Provinces: A Planetary Perspective
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Yang, S., Kendall, B., Lu, X., Zhang, F., & Zheng, W. (2017) · Precambrian Research · doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2017.06.016 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
What the ~1.4 Ga Xiamaling Formation can and cannot tell us about the mid‐Proterozoic ocean
Diamond, C., Planavsky, N. J., Wang, C., & Lyons, T. W. (2018) · Geobiology · doi:10.1111/gbi.12282 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Self-citationBiogeochemical Transformations in the History of the Ocean
Lenton, T. M., & Daines, S. J. (2016) · Annual Review of Marine Science · doi:10.1146/annurev-marine-010816-060521 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
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A sluggish mid‐Proterozoic biosphere and its effect on Earth's redox balance
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Mobility and recalcitrance of organo–chromium(III) complexes
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Dykes of the 1.11Ga Umkondo LIP, Southern Africa: Clues to a complex plumbing system
Kock, M. O. D., Ernst, R. E., Söderlund, U., Jourdan, F., Hofmann, A., Gall, B. L., Bertrand, H., Chisonga, B. C., Beukes, N. J., Rajesh, H. M., et al. (2014) · Precambrian Research · doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2014.05.006 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Self-citationMacpherson, C. G., Hilton, D. R., Sinton, J. M., Poreda, R. J., & Craig, H. (1998) · Geology · doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1998)026 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
A small marine biosphere in the Proterozoic
Laakso, T. A., & Schrag, D. P. (2018) · Geobiology · doi:10.1111/gbi.12323 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Rodler, A., Sánchez-Pastor, N., Fernández-Dı́az, L., & Frei, R. (2015) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2015.05.021 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Iodine proxy evidence for increased ocean oxygenation during the Bitter Springs Anomaly
Lu, W., Wörndle, S., Halverson, G. P., Zhou, X., Bekker, A., Rainbird, R. H., Hardisty, D. S., Lyons, T. W., & Lu, Z. (2017) · Geochemical Perspectives Letters · doi:10.7185/geochemlet.1746 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Self-citationZhang, S., Ernst, R. E., Pei, J., Zhao, Y. J., Zhou, M., & Hu, G. (2018) · Geology · doi:10.1130/g45210.1 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Self-citationLaakso, T. A., & Schrag, D. P. (2018) · Global Biogeochemical Cycles · doi:10.1002/2017gb005832 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Mid-Proterozoic redox evolution and the possibility of transient oxygenation events
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Self-citationPrevalence of partnerships between bacteria and ciliates in oxygen-depleted marine water columns
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Refined control of cell stemness allowed animal evolution in the oxic realm
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Anoxic ecosystems and early eukaryotes
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Oxygenation, Life, and the Planetary System during Earth's Middle History: An Overview
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Self-citationEnhanced Weathering Triggered the Transient Oxygenation Event at ∼1.57 Ga
Tang, D., Fu, X., Shi, X., Zhou, L., Zheng, W., Li, C., Xu, D., Zhou, X., Xie, B., Zhu, X., et al. (2022) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2022gl099018 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Subaerial volcanism broke mid-Proterozoic environmental stasis
Zhang, S., Wang, H., Wang, X., Zheng, W., Hao, J., von Strandmann, P. A. E. P., Ye, Y., Shi, M., Liu, Y., & Lyu, Y. (2024) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.adk5991 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Self-citationXu, L., Lechte, M. A., Shi, X., Zheng, W., Zhou, L., Huang, K., Zhou, X., & Tang, D. (2024) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2023gl106654 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Zhang, S., Kamo, S. L., Ernst, R. E., Hu, G., Zhang, Q., Bilali, H. E., & Zhao, Y. J. (2024) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2024gl109457 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Self-citationLarge igneous provinces played a major role in oceanic oxygenation events during the mid-Proterozoic
Luo, A., Sun, G., Grasby, S. E., & Yin, R. (2024) · Communications Earth & Environment · doi:10.1038/s43247-024-01780-2 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
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Self-citationSong, K., Li, D., Lv, Y., Yuan, C., Qu, Y., & Liu, S. (2024) · Precambrian Research · doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2024.107398 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
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Self-citationVolcanically modulated micronutrient cycles in the mid-Proterozoic ocean
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Self-citationEvolutionary stasis during the Mesoproterozoic Columbia-Rodinia supercontinent transition
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Self-citationOxygenation of the Proterozoic Earth's surface: An evolving story
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Self-citationEvolution of Earth's Atmosphere
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Self-citationEnhanced weathering triggered the transient oxygenation event at ~1.57 GaPreprint
Tang, D., Fu, X., Shi, X., Zhou, L., Zheng, W., Li, C., Xu, D., Zhou, X., Xie, B., Zhu, X., et al. (2022) · doi:10.1002/essoar.10511224.1
A novel big-data perspective on earth system evolution
Bilali, H. E., Ernst, R. E., Lyons, T. W., & Bekker, A. (2023) · International Geology Review · doi:10.1080/00206814.2023.2188405
Self-citationSedimente als Spiegel der Erdsystementwicklung
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Oxygen rise recorded in a 1.4 Ga paleoweathering crust from the North China Craton
Zhao, X., Lan, C., & Long, X. (2025) · 中国科学通报:英文版 · doi:10.1016/j.scib.2025.12.038
The chemistry of habitable oceans in the Solar system
Hao, J., Zhu, Y., Knoll, A. H., Tosca, N. J., He, C., Lau, M. C. Y., Liao, L., Crockford, P. W., Stüeken, E. E., Huo, A., et al. (2026) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-026-74955-4
- Authors
- Diamond, C. W., Ernst, R. E., Zhang, S., & Lyons, T. W.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Riverside (US)
- National Research Tomsk State University (RU)
- Ministry of Natural Resources (CN)
- Venue
- Geophysical Monograph Series
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2021-01-08
- Pages
- 487-501
- ISSN
- 0065-8448 (ISSN-L)
- 2328-8779
- OpenAlex
- W3119126117
- Cited by
- 25
- References
- 119
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 1
- Type
- other
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Geophysical monograph (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Paleontology and Stratigraphy of Fossils
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geophysics › Geological and Geochemical Analysis
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geochemistry and Petrology › Geochemistry and Elemental Analysis
- Keywords
- large igneous provinces, Precambrian, Proterozoic, atmospheric oxygenation, ocean redox, black shales, ocean anoxia, continental flood basalts, organic matter burial, eukaryotic evolution, environmental stability, redox proxies
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