Stability of the online grooming victimization of minors: Prevalence and association with shame, guilt, and mental health outcomes over one year
Open accessAbstract
Introduction: Online grooming is the process by which an adult manipulates a minor by using information and communication technologies to interact sexually with that minor. The objective of this study was to analyze the stability of online grooming victimization among minors and its relationship with demographic variables (e.g., gender, age, and sexual orientation), emotions of shame and guilt, and depression and anxiety symptoms. Methods: The participants were 746 adolescents aged 12–14 years when the study started (M age = 13.34, SD = 0.87) who completed self‐reports at Time 1 (T1) and 1 year later at Time 2 (T2). Among them, 400 were girls, 344 were boys, and two were nonbinary. At each time point, the minors self‐reported their online grooming experiences during the previous year. Results: The results showed that 11.8% (n = 89) of the participants were T1‐victims, 13% (n = 95) were T2‐victims, and 11% (n = 81) were stable victims of online grooming. Stability in victimization was related to being older, being a sexual minority, being born abroad, having separated or divorced parents, and having parents with a lower education level. Stable victims showed higher shame and guilt scores at T1 than did T1‐victims, indicating that elevated levels of shame and guilt could contribute to the persistence of online grooming over time. Conclusions: Overall, adolescents in the stable victim category presented more depression and anxiety symptoms. Intervention strategies should address emotions related to victimization, such as shame and guilt, as well as depression and anxiety symptoms.
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In longitudinal studies examining longer periods, overall cybergrooming prevalence rates increased to 25-35%.
“However, in longitudinal studies examining longer periods, overall prevalence rates increased to 25–35% (e.g., Gámez-Guadix et al., 2023).”
From Why They Speak Up (or Don’t): Reasons For and Against Cybergrooming Disclosure Among Adolescent Victims (2025) · cites this paper as Gámez-Guadix et al., 2023
The Results (page unavailable) report overall online-grooming victimization of 11.8% at the first assessment and 12.7% one year later, with 10.9% victimized at both. This longitudinal study therefore does not show overall prevalence increasing to 25–35%. (LLM, conf=0.89)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredOCSA is associated with depression, anxiety, shame, reduced quality of life, and relational difficulties.
“These vulnerabilities align with evidence that OCSA is associated with depression, anxiety, shame, reduced quality of life, and relational difficulties (12, 17, 18, 28, 53).”
From Developmental Trajectories and Outcomes of Online Child Sexual Abuse: A Systematic Review of Longitudinal Studies (2026) · cites this paper as [17]
The Results and Discussion (page numbers unavailable) associate online grooming victimization among adolescents with depression and anxiety symptoms and report higher shame among stable victims than T1-only victims. The cited paper does not establish the claimed associations with reduced quality of life or relational difficulties. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe stability of grooming over a year forecasted higher depression, anxiety, shame, and guilt.
“The stability of grooming over a year forecasted higher depression, anxiety, shame, and guilt (17).”
From Developmental Trajectories and Outcomes of Online Child Sexual Abuse: A Systematic Review of Longitudinal Studies (2026) · cites this paper as [17]
The Results and Table 4 associate stable online grooming victimization with higher depression and anxiety symptoms, while the Results and Table 3 show higher shame and guilt among stable victims than T1-only victims at T1. They do not show higher shame and guilt than T2-only victims at T2. The Discussion describes these findings as associations, not evidence that grooming stability forecasted or caused increases in all four outcomes. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredAdolescents aged 15 to 16 are more susceptible to grooming dynamics.
“A study in Argentina found a linear relationship between age and the onset of grooming interactions. Adolescents aged 15 to 16 are more susceptible to grooming dynamics [13].”
From Grooming Risk Factors in Adolescents with Abuse Histories: Insights from Chilean Reparative Programs (2025) · cites this paper as [13]
The Results and Discussion report that adolescents with stable grooming victimization were significantly older than nonvictims, supporting a general association with age. But the Participants section says the study was conducted in Spain and excluded anyone older than 15; it cannot establish that 15- to 16-year-olds are particularly susceptible. It also does not report a linear relationship between age and the onset of grooming interactions in Argentina. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredChildren and adolescents experience a progressive increase in the use of virtual platforms, which creates contexts of vulnerability to risk situations.
“Considering a series of studies on this topic, it is evident that children and adolescents experience a progressive increase in the use of virtual platforms. While these platforms provide opportunities, they also create contexts of vulnerability to risk situations [13].”
From Grooming Risk Factors in Adolescents with Abuse Histories: Insights from Chilean Reparative Programs (2025) · cites this paper as [13]
The paper’s Abstract describes online grooming as a risk to minors, and the Discussion describes offenders exploiting vulnerable minors. Our copy does not establish that children’s and adolescents’ use of virtual platforms is progressively increasing or discuss the opportunities those platforms provide; searches for those points found no supporting passage. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Adult solicitation predicts poorer quality of life and emotional distress.
“adult solicitation predicted poorer quality of life and emotional distress”
From Developmental Trajectories and Outcomes of Online Child Sexual Abuse: A Systematic Review of Longitudinal Studies (2026) · cites this paper as [17]
Section 1.1 (page unavailable) reports that stable online sexual solicitation and sexual interactions with adults are associated with worse quality of life, citing earlier research. The Discussion (page unavailable) reports more depression and anxiety symptoms among grooming victims, but the paper does not establish that adult solicitation predicts those outcomes; it says the direction of the relationship is uncertain. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredOnline and offline sexual victimization frequently co-occur and reinforce one another.
“However, they frequently co-occur and reinforce one another, so research and practice increasingly consider them together when assessing risk and impact (11, 12, 17-19).”
From Developmental Trajectories and Outcomes of Online Child Sexual Abuse: A Systematic Review of Longitudinal Studies (2026) · cites this paper as [17]
The paper’s introductory passage (labeled Abstract in our copy; page unavailable) says online grooming can progress to an offline meeting for a sexual relationship, supporting a connection between online and offline harm. It does not establish that online and offline sexual victimization frequently co-occur or reinforce one another, or that research and practice increasingly assess them together. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredOne included longitudinal study found evidence for a bidirectional association between depressive symptoms but not anxiety symptoms and cybergrooming victimization.
“One of the included longitudinal studies found evidence for a bidirectional association between depressive symptoms but not anxiety symptoms and cybergrooming victimization (Gámez-Guadix et al., 2023).”
From Cybergrooming Victimization Among Young People: A Systematic Review of Prevalence Rates, Risk Factors, and Outcomes (2025) · cites this paper as Gámez-Guadix et al., 2023
The Discussion (page not available) reports that adolescents victimized at T2 had more depressive symptoms, but not anxiety symptoms, at T1 before victimization. The study also associates grooming victimization with depressive symptoms, but it does not establish the reverse longitudinal direction—victimization predicting later depression. The paper describes a potentially reciprocal relationship in its background, citing prior research, rather than demonstrating a bidirectional association in this study. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredCybergrooming victimization can cause depression and anxiety symptoms through traumatic dynamics, and conversely, victims exhibiting such symptoms could be more vulnerable to cybergroomers' efforts.
“Namely, cybergrooming victimization can cause depression and anxiety symptoms through traumatic dynamics, and conversely, victims exhibiting such symptoms could be more vulnerable to cybergroomers' efforts (Gámez-Guadix et al., 2023).”
From Cybergrooming Victimization Among Young People: A Systematic Review of Prevalence Rates, Risk Factors, and Outcomes (2025) · cites this paper as Gámez-Guadix et al., 2023
Section 1.1 proposes both directions: grooming victimization could increase depression and anxiety symptoms through traumatic dynamics, while symptomatic victims could appear more vulnerable to abusers. The claim’s statement that victimization “can cause” symptoms is stronger than this proposed mechanism; the Discussion reports associations and a possible risk factor, not a demonstrated causal effect. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredStable grooming victimization was more common among sexual minority adolescents and those with lower parental education, and stability was associated with greater emotional harm.
“Stable grooming victimization was more common among sexual minority adolescents and those with lower parental education, and stability was associated with greater emotional harm (17).”
From Developmental Trajectories and Outcomes of Online Child Sexual Abuse: A Systematic Review of Longitudinal Studies (2026) · cites this paper as [17]
Gámez-Guadix et al. (2023) reported separate prevalence rates for victims only at t1 (11.8%), victims only at t2 (12.7%), and stable victims over t1 and t2 (10.9%).
“One of them reported separate prevalence rates for victims only at measurement point one (t1) (11.8%), victims only at t2 (one year later) (12.7%), and stable victims over t1 and t2 (10.9%) (Gámez-Guadix et al., 2023).”
From Cybergrooming Victimization Among Young People: A Systematic Review of Prevalence Rates, Risk Factors, and Outcomes (2025) · cites this paper as Gámez-Guadix et al., 2023
Longitudinal analyses showed that t2-victims exhibited more symptoms of depression at t1 than non-victims, indicating that depressive symptoms could not only be an outcome of cybergrooming victimization but also a risk factor.
“Noteworthy, longitudinal analyses showed that t2-victims exhibited more symptoms of depression at t1 than non-victims (Gámez-Guadix et al., 2023), indicating that depressive symptoms could not only be an outcome of cybergrooming victimization but also a risk factor.”
From Cybergrooming Victimization Among Young People: A Systematic Review of Prevalence Rates, Risk Factors, and Outcomes (2025) · cites this paper as Gámez-Guadix et al., 2023
Findings regarding migration background and parents' relationship status were inconclusive in that no differences were found or that stable cybergrooming victims were more likely to have a migration background and separated parents than non-victims.
“The findings regarding migration background and the parents' relationship status were inconclusive in that no differences were found (Bergmann & Baier, 2016; Wachs et al., 2012) or that stable cybergrooming victims were more likely to have a migration background and separated parents than non-victims (Gámez-Guadix et al., 2023; Wachs et al., 2012).”
From Cybergrooming Victimization Among Young People: A Systematic Review of Prevalence Rates, Risk Factors, and Outcomes (2025) · cites this paper as Gámez-Guadix et al., 2023
One study investigated shame and guilt as an outcome of cybergrooming victimization and found that stable victims had higher shame and guilt scores at t1 than t1-victims, indicating that those feelings could contribute to the persistence of victimization.
“One study investigated shame and guilt as an outcome of cybergrooming victimization and found that stable victims had higher shame and guilt scores at t1 than t1-victims, indicating that those feelings could contribute to the persistence of victimization (Gámez-Guadix et al., 2023).”
From Cybergrooming Victimization Among Young People: A Systematic Review of Prevalence Rates, Risk Factors, and Outcomes (2025) · cites this paper as Gámez-Guadix et al., 2023
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Influential
- Authors
- Gámez‐Guadix, M., Mateos‐Pérez, E., Alcázar, M. A., Martínez‐Bacaicoa, J., & Wachs, S.
- Affiliations
- Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (ES)
- University of the Basque Country (ES)
- Autonomous University of Madrid Madrid Spain
- University of Münster (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Gámez‐Guadix, Manuel
- ORCID
- Venue
- Journal of Adolescence
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2023-09-03
- Volume
- 95
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 1715-1724
- ISSN
- 0140-1971 (ISSN-L)
- 1095-9254
- OpenAlex
- W4386407924
- Cited by
- 22
- References
- 34
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 3
- FWCI
- 6.39
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Adolescence (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Biblos-e Archivo (Universidad Autónoma de Madrid) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Hispana (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (B-I00, RTI2018-101167-B-I00)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Sexual Assault and Victimization Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Bullying, Victimization, and Aggression
- Keywords
- online grooming, child sexual exploitation, cyber victimization, adolescents, shame, guilt, depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, sexual minority youth, parental education, parental separation, immigrant youth, longitudinal follow-up
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Animals, Female, Grooming, Guilt, Humans, Male, Shame, Prevalence, Outcome Assessment, Health Care, Crime Victims
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