Declining employment among young black less-educated men: The role of incarceration and child support

Holzer, Harry J.; Offner, Paul; Sorensen, Elaine

doi:10.1002/pam.20092

Cited by 190Criminal Justice and Corrections AnalysisLabor market dynamics and wage inequalityGender, Labor, and Family Dynamics

Declining employment among young black less-educated men: The role of incarceration and child support

Holzer, Harry J., Offner, Paul, Sorensen, Elaine·2005·Journal of Policy Analysis and Management

DOI 10.1002/pam.20092

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Abstract

In this paper, we explore the continuing decline in employment and labor force participation of nonenrolled Black men between the ages of 16 and 34 who have a high school education or less in the 1980s and 1990s. We focus on two fairly new developments: (1) the dramatic growth in the number of young Black men who have been incarcerated and (2) strengthened enforcement of child support policies. We analyze micro-level data from the Current Population Survey Outgoing Rotation Groups (CPS-ORG), into which state-level data over time on incarceration rates and child support enforcement have been merged. Our results indicate that previous incarceration and child support enforcement can account for half or more of the decline in employment activity among Black men aged 25–34. Previous incarceration also contributes to the decline among those aged 16–24. © 2005 by the Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management

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Increasingly sophisticated demographic estimates documented disparities in crime and incarceration and their consequences for economic activity and labor markets.
“Early works called attention to the staggeringly disparate rates of crime and incarceration (Hagan and Peterson 1995;Tonry 2022), and increasingly sophisticated demographic estimates documented these disparities and their consequences for economic activity and labor markets (Apel and Sweeten 2010;Holzer et al. 2005;Pager 2003;Pettit 2012;Pettit and Western 2004;Western 2006;Western and Beckett 199”
From The Rise of the Carceral State: Foundations and Contours of a Rapidly Changing Criminal Legal System (2025) · cites this paper as Holzer et al. 2005

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Rossin-Slater, M., & Wüst, M. (2018) · Journal of Public Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2018.06.003 · Cited by 14
“4For two other recent examples of the simulated IV approach, see: (i) Milligan and Stabile (2011), who analyze the effects of Canadian tax benefits on child outcomes, and (ii) Brown et al.”
Moynihan Was Right: Now What?
Haskins, R. (2008) · The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science · doi:10.1177/0002716208324793 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Barriers to Formal Child Support Payment
Berger, L. M., Cancian, M., Guarín, Á., Hodges, L. B., & Meyer, D. R. (2021) · Social Service Review · doi:10.1086/714370 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Quantitative research suggests that some child support policies are associated with increased payments and compliance (e.g., routine withholding and in-hospital paternity establishment; see Freeman and Waldfogel 1998; Sorensen and Hill 2004; Holzer et al. 2005; Meyer, Cancian, and Waring 2020).”
Background
Low-Income Fathers’ Access to Health Insurance
Corman, H., Noonan, K., Carroll, A., & Reichman, N. (2009) · Journal of health care for the poor and underserved · doi:10.1353/hpu.0.0120 · Cited by 13
The carceral logic of parental responsibility
Battle, B. (2022) · Journal of Marriage and Family · doi:10.1111/jomf.12902 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Dual Debtors: Child Support and Criminal Legal Financial Obligations
Horowitz, V. L., Spencer-Suarez, K., Larson, R., Stewart, R., Edwards, F., Obara, E. E., & Uggen, C. (2022) · Social Service Review · doi:10.1086/720016 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Association between disparities in intergenerational economic mobility and cause-specific mortality among Black and White persons in the United States
Islami, F., Fedewa, S. A., Thomson, B., Nogueira, L., Yabroff, K. R., & Jemal, A. (2021) · Cancer Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.canep.2021.101998 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
On the Job or in the Joint: Criminal Justice Contact and Employment Outcomes
Fernandes, A. D. (2020) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0011128719901112 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Those most often involved in the criminal justice system are those without a solid job record or high levels of experience and education (Holzer et al., 2005; Travis et al., 2001).”
Background
Risk and Protective Factors for Firearm Assault Injuries Among Black Men: A Scoping Review of Research
Marineau, L., Uzzi, M., Buggs, S. A. L., Ihenacho, N., & Campbell, J. (2023) · Trauma, Violence, & Abuse · doi:10.1177/15248380231217042 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“…between criminal legal system involvement and firearm assault are the intersection between reentry into society after incarceration and housing instability, barriers to employment, and limited educational opportunities (Geller & Curtis, 2011; Holzer et al., 2005; Richardson et al., 2016).”
Background
Child Support Conviction and Recidivism: A Statistical Interaction Pattern by Race
Spjeldnes, S., Yamatani, H., & Davis, M. M. (2015) · Journal of Evidence-Informed Social Work · doi:10.1080/15433714.2014.992697 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“A considerable body of literature shows that incarceration significantly affects employment opportunities and the ability to pay child support, which is particularly evident for noncustodial fathers between the ages of 25 and 34 (Geller, Garfinkel, & Western, 2011; Holzer et al., 2005).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Income Support Policies for Low-Income Men and Noncustodial Fathers: Tax and Transfer Programs
Mincy, R., Klempin, S., & Schmidt, H. (2011) · The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science · doi:10.1177/0002716210393869 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“…evidence that the child support burdens of low-income fathers reduce their employment or labor force participation rate (Freeman and Waldfogel 2001; Holzer, Offner, and Sorensen 2005), there is preliminary evidence that when arrears are high relative to fathers' income, formal labor force…”
Rethinking public policy toward low-income fathers in the child support program
Sorensen, E. (2010) · doi:10.1002/pam.20512 · Cited by 9
Self-citation

Authors: Holzer, H. J., Offner, P., & Sorensen, E.
Affiliations: Georgetown University (US)
Urban Institute (US)
ORCID: Holzer, Harry J.
Venue: Journal of Policy Analysis and Management
Publisher: Wiley
Published: 2005
Volume: 24
Issue: 2
Pages: 329-350
ISSN: 0276-8739 (ISSN-L)
1520-6688
DOI: 10.1002/pam.20092
OpenAlex: W2026893866
Cited by: 190
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 3 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 8 · 2013: 11 · 2012: 12
FWCI: 36.45
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: doi.wiley.com/10.1002/tdm_license_1.1 (tdm, 3895 d)
Locations: Journal of Policy Analysis and Management (publishedVersion)
RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
Issue Lab (Candid) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis
Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Labor market dynamics and wage inequality
Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender, Labor, and Family Dynamics
Keywords: incarceration, child support enforcement, employment decline, labor force participation, Black men, young men, low educational attainment, criminal records

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Declining employment among young black less-educated men: The role of incarceration and child support

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