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Cited by 366Substance Abuse Treatment and OutcomesRacial and Ethnic Identity ResearchAlcohol Consumption and Health Effects

Less drinking, yet more problems: understanding African American drinking and related problems

Open access
Zapolski, Tamika C. B., Pedersen, Sarah L., McCarthy, Denis M., Smith, Gregory T.·2014·Psychological Bulletin
DOI 10.1037/a0032113PMC PMC3758406
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Abstract

Researchers have found that, compared to European Americans, African Americans report later initiation of drinking, lower rates of use, and lower levels of use across almost all age groups. Nevertheless, African Americans also have higher levels of alcohol problems than European Americans. After reviewing current data regarding these trends, we provide a theory to understand this apparent paradox as well as to understand variability in risk among African Americans. Certain factors appear to operate as both protective factors against heavy use and risk factors for negative consequences from use. For example, African American culture is characterized by norms against heavy alcohol use or intoxication, which protects against heavy use but also provides within-group social disapproval when use does occur. African Americans are more likely to encounter legal problems from drinking than European Americans, even at the same levels of consumption, perhaps thus resulting in reduced consumption but more problems from consumption. There appears to be one particular group of African Americans, low-income African American men, who are at the highest risk for alcoholism and related problems. We theorize that this effect is due to the complex interaction of residential discrimination, racism, age of drinking, and lack of available standard life reinforcers (e.g., stable employment and financial stability). Further empirical research will be needed to test our theories and otherwise move this important field forward. A focus on within-group variation in drinking patterns and problems is necessary. We suggest several new avenues of inquiry.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This review documents that African Americans report lower alcohol use and higher abstinence than European Americans but nonetheless experience more alcohol-related problems. It proposes an integrative theory in which cultural, historical, religious, parental, environmental, and genetic factors can protect against heavy use while also increasing risk for negative consequences, with low-income African American men at highest risk.

Key findings

  • African Americans report lower alcohol use across development: youth past-30-day use was 10% vs. 18% for European Americans and lifetime use 34% vs. 42%; young adults reported current drinking 49.6% vs. 67.7%, binge drinking 27.9% vs. 46.1%, and heavy drinking 5.7% vs. 17.3%; adults ages 26–70 reported current/past-30-day drinking 46.6% vs. 59.4%, binge drinking 20.5% vs. 22.2%, and heavy drinking 4.9% vs. 6.9%.
  • Despite lower use, African Americans experience more alcohol-related problems: Mulia et al. found low-to-moderate heavy drinkers were three times more likely to report negative social consequences and five times more likely to report dependence symptoms than European Americans with similar drinking patterns; liver cirrhosis mortality was 1.27 times more likely among African Americans than European Americans, and alcohol-related disease/disorder mortality was 10% higher.
  • Proposed explanations include conservative drinking norms, parental monitoring, religiosity, racial socialization, and the ADH1B*3 allele as protective against heavy use, but these can also produce within-group social disapproval, legal consequences, and stronger alcohol responses; environmental risks include eight times as many liquor stores per capita in African American communities after controlling for socioeconomic status, and African American men underestimated intake by 31% with a mean drink alcohol content of 0.79 oz vs. 0.66 oz for European American men.
  • The paper identifies low-income African American men as the highest-risk subgroup and theorizes this via limited access to standard life reinforcers: poverty was 23% vs. 8% for European Americans, unemployment twice as high, unemployment among 20-year-old high school dropouts 62.8% vs. 24.5%, and job callbacks 14% vs. 34% without a criminal record and 5% vs. 17% with a criminal record.

Methods

  • Narrative/integrative review and theoretical paper; no new empirical data are collected. It reviews historical, cultural, social, biological, and behavioral literature to answer why African Americans drink less, why they experience more consequences, and which African American subgroup is at greatest risk.
  • Synthesizes findings from national randomized samples and community convenience samples, with tables referenced as listing reviewed studies.
  • Main analysis is conceptual synthesis, including an application of behavioral choice theory and standard life reinforcers (SLRs) to explain risk among low-income African American men; no statistical meta-analysis is reported.

Limitations

  • The paper states that further empirical research is needed to test its theories; there have been too few studies of individual differences within African Americans, many individual-difference studies used community-based convenience samples, no large-scale genetic study has directly tested ADH1B*3 with consumption, and no longitudinal study has examined low-income African American men across development.
  • The paper states that its central hypothesis about limited SLR access contributing to problem drinking among poor African American men has not been tested.
  • Evident from the text: as a narrative review, no systematic search strategy, inclusion criteria, or quality appraisal is described, and the tables referenced in the text are not included in the provided material.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1037/a0032113

Cites

296 of 296 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 309 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Premisecitation

    African Americans have higher levels of alcohol problems than European Americans.

    “Nevertheless, African Americans also have higher levels of alcohol problems than European Americans.”
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    • cites Caetano, 1997

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    • cites Mulia et al., 2009

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    • cites Galvan & Caetano, 2003

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  • Premisecitation

    African Americans who drink are at comparable and at times higher risk for alcohol-related problems than European Americans.

    “African Americans who do engage in drinking behaviors appear to be at a comparable and at times at a higher risk for experiencing alcohol related problems”
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    • cites Caetano & Kaskutas, 1996

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    • cites Galvan & Caetano, 2003

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  • Interpretationreasoning

    Norms against heavy alcohol use or intoxication protect African Americans against heavy use.

    “which protects against heavy use”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Interpretationreasoning

    Certain factors operate as both protective factors against heavy alcohol use and risk factors for negative consequences from use.

    “Certain factors appear to operate as both protective factors against heavy use and risk factors for negative consequences from use.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Premisecitation

    African Americans report abstention from alcohol at significantly higher rates than European Americans.

    “African Americans report abstention from alcohol at significantly higher rates than European Americans”
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    • cites Caetano & Clark, 1998a

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    • cites Caetano & Kaskutas, 1995

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    • cites SAMHSA, 2010

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 19
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    Premisecitation

    Compared with European Americans, African Americans report later initiation of drinking, lower rates of alcohol use, and lower levels of use across almost all age groups.

    “Researchers have found that, compared to European Americans, African Americans report later initiation of drinking, lower rates of use, and lower levels of use across almost all age groups.”
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    • cites Caetano & Clark, 1998a

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    • cites Galvan & Caetano, 2003

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    • cites SAMHSA, 2010, 2011

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    Premisecitation

    Compared to European Americans, African Americans are more likely to live in poverty, be unemployed, and have lower educational attainment.

    “Compared to European Americans, African Americans are more likely to live in poverty, be unemployed, and have lower educational attainment (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012; Williams, Mohammed, Leavell, & Collins, 2010).”
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    • cites Williams, Mohammed, Leavell, & Collins, 2010

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    Premisecitation

    In studies excluding abstainers, African Americans are more likely to develop and die from liver cirrhosis and other alcohol-related causes compared to European Americans, despite not engaging in heavy drinking at greater rates.

    “In studies that exclude abstainers, there is evidence to suggest that African Americans are more likely to develop and die from liver cirrhosis and other alcohol-related causes compared to European Americans”
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    • cites Galvan & Caetano, 2003

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    • cites Grant, 1997

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    • cites Greenfield, 2001

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    Premisecitation

    Being African American is not associated with increased risk of mental disorder diagnosis; it is associated with reduced risk.

    “being an African American is not associated with increased risk (Kessler, Berglund, Demler, Jin, Merikangas, & Walters, 2005a; Kessler, Chiu, Demler, & Walters, 2005b). In fact, the opposite appears to be true: being African American has been found to be associated with a reduced risk of mental disorder diagnosis”
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    • cites Kessler et al., 2005a

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    • cites Kessler et al., 2005b

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    • cites Riolo et al., 2005

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    Premisecitation

    African American youth were more likely to get arrested for alcohol use compared to European American peers, due in part to racial biases within law enforcement.

    “Conley (1994) reported that African American youth were more likely to get arrested for alcohol use compared to their European American peers, due, in part, to racial biases within law enforcement.”
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    • cites Conley, 1994

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    Premisecitation

    The ADH1B*3 allele appears to offer protection against alcoholism among African Americans, possibly by accelerating the rate of alcohol metabolism for some African Americans.

    “These factors combine with the apparent presence of a protective genetic factor (the ADH1B*3 allele), which appears to reduce risk by accelerating the rate of metabolism of alcohol for some African Americans (Ehlers et al., 2003).”
    • Also stated in: § Historical Perspective · hedged
      “the limited research conducted does suggest the allele offers protection against alcoholism among African Americans.”
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    • cites Ehlers et al., 2003

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    Premisecitation

    Research in the past two decades has documented culturally specific protective factors within the African American community related to reduced risk for alcoholism, including more conservative norms and attitudes toward alcohol use, higher levels of parental monitoring of youth substance use, and higher levels of religiosity.

    “Research conducted within the past two decades, based on both national randomized and community convenience samples, has documented several culturally specific protective factors within the African American community related to reduced risk for alcoholism, such as more conservative norms and attitudes towards alcohol use, higher levels of parental monitoring of youth’s substance use behaviors, and”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Premisenone given

    African Americans report lower endorsement of lifetime alcohol dependence but higher rates of past-year dependence.

    “There appears to be a distinction between past year dependence and lifetime, showing that African Americans appear to report lower endorsement of alcohol dependence when the criterion is lifetime dependence, but higher rates when the time frame is past year.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    African culture has historically been characterized by cultural restraints against heavy consumption, and heavy drinking has not been normative in this cultural group for many hundreds of years.

    “African culture has been characterized by cultural restraints against heavy consumption: for many hundreds of years, it has not been normative to drink heavily in this cultural group (Christmon, 1995).”
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    • cites Christmon, 1995

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    Premisecitation

    During slavery in the United States, alcohol use continued to be limited among African American slaves, with abstinence becoming the norm.

    “During the period of slavery in the United States, alcohol use continued to be limited among African American slaves. In part due to external pressure and control (i.e., laws prohibiting alcohol use; slave owners restricting access and use), slaves became even less likely to drink alcohol, with abstinence becoming the norm”
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    • cites Christmon, 1995

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    • cites Herd, 1991

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    Premisecitation

    Three aspects of the African American family are protective against alcohol use among youth: restricted access to alcohol, higher parental monitoring, and higher rates of sanctioning use.

    “Three specific aspects of the African American family have been identified as protective factors against alcohol use among African American youth: providing more restricted access to alcohol, engaging in higher levels of parental monitoring of adolescent behaviors, and higher rates of sanctioning use”
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    • cites James & Johnson, 1996

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    Premisecitation

    ADH1B*3 is present almost exclusively in individuals of African descent and estimated to be present in up to one-third of African Americans.

    “There is evidence that the ADH1B*3 allele is present almost exclusively within individuals of African descent and has been estimated to be present in up to one-third of African Americans”
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    • cites Ehlers et al., 2003

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    Premisecitation

    African Americans have higher rates of negative social consequences from drinking and alcohol dependence symptoms than European Americans at almost all levels of drinking, with the most pronounced differences at low levels of drinking.

    “Mulia and colleagues (2009) also found higher rates of negative social consequences from drinking and of alcohol dependence symptoms among African Americans than among European Americans, at almost all levels of drinking, with the most pronounced differences observed at low levels of drinking.”
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    • cites Mulia et al., 2009

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    Premisereasoning

    For African Americans, there continue to be relatively conservative norms for drinking across situations and relatively conservative attitudes toward consumption.

    “As has been true historically, for African Americans there continue to be relatively conservative norms for drinking across situations today, as well as relatively conservative attitudes toward consumption.”
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    Premisecitation

    ADH1B*3 is associated with stronger positive alcohol expectancies, more pronounced physiological effects of alcohol, and negative family history of alcohol dependence.

    “Studies, though smaller scale convenience samples, have shown that the ADH1B*3 allele is associated with stronger positive alcohol expectancies (Ehlers et al, 2003), more pronounced physiological effects of alcohol (McCarthy et al., 2010), and negative family history of alcohol dependence (Ehlers et al., 2001).”
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    • cites Ehlers et al., 2003

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    • cites McCarthy et al., 2010

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    Premisecitation

    After controlling for socioeconomic status, African American residential communities had eight times as many liquor stores per capita as predominantly European American communities, and the venues were often located in close proximity to African American churches, hospitals, schools, homes, and recreational parks.

    “LaVeist and Wallace (2000) found that after controlling for socioeconomic status, African American residential communities had eight times as many liquor stores per capita as predominately European American communities, and the venues were often located in close proximity to African American churches, hospitals, schools, homes and recreational parks.”
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    • cites LaVeist and Wallace (2000)

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    Premisecitation

    Among drinkers, increased alcohol consumption is associated with increased negative drinking consequences for European American men, but there is no relationship for African American men; regardless of amount consumed, African American men are more likely to experience negative consequences for use.

    “Jones-Webb and colleagues (1997b) reported that among drinkers, although increased alcohol consumption is associated with increased negative drinking consequences (e.g., financial, health, family, work, legal problems or alcohol dependence symptoms) for European American men, there is no relationship for African American men; regardless of amount consumed, African American men are more likely to”
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    • cites Jones-Webb and colleagues (1997b)

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    Premisecitation

    Broman found that African American college students perceived themselves as more exposed to discriminatory experiences than their European American peers, but were no more likely to engage in drinking behaviors in response to experiencing discrimination.

    “Broman (2007) found that although African American college students reported perceiving themselves as more exposed to discriminatory experiences than their European American peers, they were no more likely to engage in drinking behaviors in response to experiencing discrimination.”
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    Interpretationcitation

    Although African Americans are less likely to drink, for those African Americans who do consume alcohol, greater access to alcohol beverages may place them at higher risk for engaging in heavy or risky drinking behaviors.

    “Thus, although African Americans are less likely to drink, for those African Americans who do consume alcohol, greater access to alcohol beverages may place them at higher risk for engaging in heavy or risky drinking behaviors.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Interpretationcitation

    Although African Americans as a group drink less than European Americans, those African Americans who report more experiences of discrimination are at greater risk for problem drinking than are other African Americans.

    “These studies suggest that although African Americans as a group drink less than European Americans, those African Americans who report more experiences of discrimination are at greater risk for problem drinking than are other African Americans.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Bonilla-Silva proposed that the disproportionate level of negative consequences among African Americans is due to the racialized social system in American society.

    “Bonilla-Silva (1997) proposed a theory for the disproportionate level of negative consequences among African Americans. He argued that this effect is due to what he called the “racialized social system” in American society.”
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    • cites Bonilla-Silva (1997)

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    Premisecitation

    Not all studies have found a positive association between alcohol use and discrimination; Borrell and colleagues found no relationship between drinking and self-reported experiences of discrimination among young African American adults.

    “However, not all studies have found a positive association between alcohol use and discrimination. For example, Borrell and colleagues (2007) found no relationship between drinking and self-reported experiences of discrimination among young African American adults.”
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    • cites Borrell and colleagues (2007)

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Although African Americans as a whole drink less than European Americans, alcohol venues are more prevalent in African American communities and lower-income neighborhoods.

    “Although African Americans, as a whole, drink less than European Americans, alcohol venues are more prevalent in African American communities (Duncan, Duncan, & Strycker, 2002; Jones-Webb et al., 2008) and lower-income neighborhoods (Bluthenthal et al., 2008; Duncan et al., 2002; LaVeist & Wallace, 2000; Romley, Cohen, Ringel, & Sturm, 2007).”
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    • cites Duncan, Duncan, & Strycker, 2002

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    • cites Jones-Webb et al., 2008

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    • cites Bluthenthal et al., 2008

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    African Americans may be more likely to underestimate the amount of alcohol they consume, thus indicating a lower level of consumption than is actually the case.

    “Another possibility is that African Americans may be more likely to underestimate the amount of alcohol they consume, thus indicating a lower level of consumption than is actually the case (Kaskutas & Graves, 2000; Kerr, Patterson, & Greenfield, 2009).”
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    • cites Kaskutas & Graves, 2000

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    • cites Kerr, Patterson, & Greenfield, 2009

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    Premisecitation

    Compared to lager beer, malt liquor is less expensive, has a higher alcohol content, is typically sold in larger containers, and is packaged so that it cannot be resealed, providing a strong message to consume the beverage in one sitting.

    “Compared to lager beer, malt liquor is less expensive, has a higher alcohol content, is typically sold in larger containers (i.e., 40 oz versus 12 oz), and is packaged so that it cannot be resealed, providing a strong message to consume the beverage in one sitting (Bradizza, Collins, Vincent, & Falco, 2006; Chen & Paschall, 2003).”
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    • cites Bradizza, Collins, Vincent, & Falco, 2006

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    • cites Chen & Paschall, 2003

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    Interpretationcitation

    There is evidence for considerable variability in preferred alcoholic beverages among African Americans, suggesting a limited role for malt liquor in explaining alcohol-related problem rates among African Americans.

    “However and not surprisingly, there is evidence for considerable variability in preferred alcoholic beverages among African Americans, suggesting a limited role for malt-liquor in explaining alcohol related problem rates among African Americans (Bradizza et al., 2006; Chen & Paschall, 2003; National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), 2000; Sempos et al., 2003).”
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    • cites Bradizza et al., 2006

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    • cites Chen & Paschall, 2003

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    • cites NIAAA, 2000

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    Premisecitation

    Malt liquor is readily available and heavily marketed in low-income African American neighborhoods.

    “Moreover, malt liquor is readily available and heavily marketed in low-income African American neighborhoods (Bradizza et al., 2006; Duncan et al., 2002; Herd, 2000; Jones-Webb et al., 1997a).”
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    • cites Bradizza et al., 2006

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    • cites Duncan et al., 2002

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    • cites Herd, 2000

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    Premisecitation

    Bradizza and colleagues studied a small sample of 53 young adults (43% African American) and found that among the entire sample, relatively few reported experiencing problems as a result of consuming malt liquor, and no ethnic differences were found among those who did report problems from drinking malt liquor.

    “Bradizza and colleagues (2006) studied a small sample of 53 young adults (43% African American), and found that among the entire sample, relatively few reported experiencing problems as a result of consuming malt liquor and no ethnic differences were found among those who did report problems from drinking malt liquor.”
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    • cites Bradizza and colleagues (2006)

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    Interpretationreasoning

    Even though presence of the ADH1B*3 allele could protect against progression to heavier consumption, it may increase risk for problems stemming from even moderate consumption.

    “Thus, even though presence of the allele could protect against progression to heavier consumption, it may increase risk for problems stemming from even moderate consumption.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Kerr and colleagues found that African American men were the most likely to underestimate their intake, by 31%, and had the largest overall mean drink alcohol content at 0.79 oz of alcohol, compared to 0.66 oz for the European American men sampled.

    “For example, Kerr and colleagues (2009) found when examining the type, quantity, and frequency of alcohol consumption based on ethnicity and sex, African American men were the most likely to underestimate their intake, by 31%, and had the largest overall mean drink alcohol content at 0.79 oz of alcohol, compared to 0.66 oz for the European American men sampled.”
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    • cites Kerr and colleagues (2009)

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Most studies have found a positive relationship between positive expectancies and drinking onset for African American youth that is often comparable in magnitude to what has been observed among European Americans, although some studies have found no relationship.

    “Although some studies have found no relationship between positive expectancies and drinking onset for African American youth (Chartier, Hesselbrock, & Hesselbrock, 2009), most studies have found a positive relationship that is often comparable in magnitude to what has been observed among European Americans (Flory, Lynam, Milich, Leukefeld, & Clayton, 2004; McCarthy, Miller, Smith, & Smith, 2001).”
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    • cites Chartier, Hesselbrock, & Hesselbrock, 2009

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    • cites Flory, Lynam, Milich, Leukefeld, & Clayton, 2004

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    • cites McCarthy, Miller, Smith, & Smith, 2001

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Other risk factors, namely ethnic identity, Africentrism, and exposure to discrimination, are likely to be more important for the African American community than to the European American community.

    “There are other risk factors that are likely to be more important for the African American community (i.e., ethnic identity, Africentrism, and exposure to discrimination) than to the European American community.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Positive alcohol expectancies predict increased drinking and the onset of adolescent problem drinking in general population samples.

    “A substantial body of research with general population samples has demonstrated that positive alcohol expectancies predict increased drinking (Barnow et al., 2004; Cumsille, Sayer, & Graham, 2000; Ouellette, Gerrard, Gibbons, & Reis-Bergan,, 1999; Settles, Cyders, & Smith, 2010; Smith, Goldman, Greenbaum, & Christiansen, 1995) and the onset of adolescent problem drinking (Christiansen, Smith, Roeh”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Barnow et al., 2004

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    • cites Cumsille, Sayer, & Graham, 2000

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    • cites Smith, Goldman, Greenbaum, & Christiansen, 1995

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Adolescents are at a greater risk of alcohol initiation if they are living with stepparents versus intact families, if their immediate family members use substances, if they perceive parental approval or less parental disapproval of teen drinking, if they perceive lower levels of parental support, or if they perceive greater levels of parental alcohol and drug use.

    “Donovan (2004) reported that adolescents are at a greater risk of alcohol initiation if they are living with stepparents versus intact families, if their immediate family members use substances, if they perceive parental approval or less parental disapproval of teen drinking, if they perceive lower levels of parental support, or if they perceive greater levels of parental alcohol and drug use.”
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    • cites Donovan (2004)

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In a sample of Afro-Trinidadian participants, the ADH1B*3 allele served as a protective factor against alcoholism; however, among those individuals who did become alcohol dependent, the allele was associated with an enhanced risk for liver disease.

    “Ehlers and colleagues (2007) found that in their sample of Afro-Trinidadian participants the ADH1B*3 allele served as a protective factor against alcoholism; however, among those individuals who did become alcohol dependent, the allele was associated with an enhanced risk for liver disease.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ehlers and colleagues (2007)

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    At least some African American youth who have learned to associate drinking with positive consequences are more likely to drink and to drink heavily compared to African Americans who hold fewer positive expectancies about alcohol; however, this effect may depend on whether or not they experience conduct problems during childhood.

    “Overall, it appears to be the case that at least some African American youth who have learned to associate drinking with positive consequences are more likely to drink and to drink heavily compared to African Americans who hold fewer positive expectancies about alcohol; however, this effect may depend on whether or not they experience conduct problems during childhood.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The higher rate of legal problems and negative consequences may occur both because of extra tight controls over African American behavior by the dominant culture and because the same level of alcohol consumption is likely to lead to more impairment for some African Americans than for European Americans.

    “Perhaps this occurs both because of extra tight controls over African American behavior by the dominant culture, and perhaps also because the same level of alcohol consumption is likely to lead to more impairment for some African Americans than for European Americans.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Even though African American women were less likely to drink, stress had a direct and positive relationship with their drinking, especially for those who cope with stress primarily through avoidance.

    “Jones-Webb (1998) found that even though African American women were less likely to drink, stress had a direct and positive relationship with their drinking, especially for those who cope with stress primarily through avoidance.”
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    • cites Jones-Webb (1998)

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    Interpretationreasoning

    African Americans report higher rates of negative consequences related to drinking compared to European Americans, and this occurs even at lower levels of use.

    “It has been observed that African Americans report higher rates of negative consequences related to drinking compared to European Americans (studies reviewed are detailed in Table 4); this finding is particularly noteworthy because it occurs even at lower levels of use.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    Among African Americans, those who strongly identify with African American culture are less likely to consume alcohol and more likely to hold conservative views toward drug use.

    “Amongst African Americans, studies have consistently shown that those who strongly identify with African American culture are less likely to consume alcohol (Brook, Brook, & Pahl, 2006; Burlew, Neely, & Johnson, 2000; Caldwell, Sellers, Bernat, & Zimmerman, 2004; Herd & Grube, 1996; Klonoff & Landrine, 1999; Martin, Tuch, Roman, & Dixon, 2004; Nasim, Belgrave, Jaqgers, Wilson, & Owens, 2007) and”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Brook, Brook, & Pahl, 2006

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Burlew, Neely, & Johnson, 2000

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Caldwell, Sellers, Bernat, & Zimmerman, 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    There is no main effect for whether an adolescent consumed alcohol based on his or her parents' level of use; however, adolescents whose peers use alcohol are at the greatest risk for drinking if their parents experienced problems from drinking and the least risk if their parents experienced few problems from drinking, and this effect was observed for African Americans as well as EuropeanAmericans

    “For example, Jones and colleagues (2008) found no main effect for whether an adolescent consumed alcohol based on his or her parents’ level of use. However, adolescents whose peers use alcohol are at the greatest risk for drinking if their parents experienced problems from drinking and the least risk if their parents experienced few problems from drinking. This effect was observed for African”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Jones and colleagues (2008)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    African American youth who reported that a few of their peers drank were 2.95 times more likely to drink than those whose peers did not drink; those who reported that most of their peers drank were 8.29 times more likely to drink.

    “Bossarte and Swahn (2008) found that African American youth who reported that a few of their peers drank were 2.95 times more likely to drink than those whose peers did not drink; those who reported that most of their peers drank were 8.29 times more likely to drink.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bossarte and Swahn (2008)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Peer substance use is positively associated with early age of initiation, lifetime use, current use, heavy use or binge drinking, and other alcohol abuse disorders.

    “Specifically, peer substance use is positively associated with early age of initiation (D’Amico & McCarthy, 2006; Fite, Colder, & O’Connor, 2006; Li, Barrera, Hops, & Fischer, 2006), lifetime use (Rohde, Lewinsohn & Seeley, 1996), current use (Kuntshe & Jordan, 2006), heavy use or binge drinking (Jaccard, Blanton, & Dodge, 2005; Sher & Rutledge, 2007) and other alcohol abuse disorders (Moss et al.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites D’Amico & McCarthy, 2006

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Fite, Colder, & O’Connor, 2006

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Li, Barrera, Hops, & Fischer, 2006

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In national survey research, for African American men, heavy drinking remained steady for ages 18-49, peaked during ages 50-59, and did not drop off until the early 60s.

    “national survey research on heavy drinking found that for African American men, heavy drinking remained steady (although lower than European American levels) for ages 18–49, peaked during the ages 50–59, and did not drop off until the early 60s (Herd, 1990).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Herd, 1990

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    High levels of Black awareness and greater involvement in Black social networks are associated with reduced drinking among African Americans.

    “Herd and Grube (1996) found that high levels of Black awareness and greater involvement in Black social networks was associated with reduced drinking and reduced heavy drinking among African Americans.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Herd and Grube, 1996

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    African American women consistently report lower levels of alcohol use and higher rates of abstinence compared to African American men.

    “African American women are consistently found to report lower levels of use and higher rates of abstinence compared to African American men (e.g., Caetano & Clark, 1998a; Ford et al., 2007).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Caetano & Clark, 1998a

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Ford et al., 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    African Americans who are both male and have lower income are most likely to engage in heavy or problematic drinking behaviors and experience the most problems related to use.

    “Others have reported similar findings, suggesting that African Americans who are both male and have lower income are most likely to engage in heavy or problematic drinking behaviors and experience the most problems related to use (James & Johnson, 1996; Wallace, 1999a, 1999b; Welte & Barnes, 1992).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites James & Johnson, 1996

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Wallace, 1999a, 1999b

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Welte & Barnes, 1992

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The developmental trajectory for drinking among African American men differs significantly from their female counterparts and from male European Americans.

    “The developmental trajectory for drinking among African American men has been shown to differ significantly from their female counterparts, as well as from the drinking trajectories of male European Americans.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Sex differences in religious involvement may contribute to sex differences in drinking behavior among African Americans.

    “Given that religious involvement is associated with lower rates of alcohol consumption, it is possible that sex differences in religious involvement contribute to sex differences in drinking behavior.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    For African American men, heavy drinking is associated with older age and becomes more frequent than among African American women and European American men as they age.

    “For African American men, heavy drinking is associated with older age (Caetano, 1984; Caetano & Clark, 1998a; Caetano et al., 1998; Herd, 1990), and thus becomes more frequent than what is observed among other groups (i.e., African American women and European American men) as they age.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Caetano, 1984

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Caetano & Clark, 1998a

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Herd, 1990

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Ethnic identity and Africentric world views appear to operate as protective factors among African American adolescents.

    “When considered together, both ethnic identity and Africentric world views appear to operate as protective factors (Nasim et al., 2007)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Nasim et al., 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    The isolation of poor African Americans from others during the deindustrialization period of the 1970s resulted in less frequent interactions with individuals or family members who resided in more stable urban areas or in the suburbs.

    “the isolation of poor African Americans from others during the deindustrialization period of the 1970s resulted in less frequent interactions with individuals or family members who resided in more stable urban areas or in the suburbs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Sampson and Wilson (1995) concluded that the worst urban context in which European Americans reside is significantly better than the average context of African American communities.

    “Sampson and Wilson (1995) concluded that the worst urban context in which European Americans reside is significantly better than the average context of African American communities.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sampson and Wilson, 1995

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Steady levels of drinking persist into the 50s for African American men, to a much less degree for African American women.

    “Others have similarly noted that steady levels of drinking persist into the 50s for African American men, which is found to a much less degree for African American women (Caetano & Clark, 1998a).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Caetano & Clark, 1998a

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In the early 20th century, over 1.3 million African Americans relocated from the Southern United States to Northern, Midwestern, and Western areas to escape hardships, prejudice, and pursue jobs.

    “In the early 20th century, over 1.3 million African Americans relocated from the Southern United States to the Northern, Midwestern, and Western areas to escape hardships, prejudice, and to pursue jobs, particularly those then available in factories, due to the large increase in the manufacturing industry (Christmon, 1995; Harper, 1976; James & Johnson, 1996).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Christmon, 1995

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Harper, 1976

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites James & Johnson, 1996

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Among African Americans, low-income African American men and older African American men are two subgroups that have consistently shown higher rates of heavy drinking and related problems.

    “Among African Americans, there are two subgroups that have consistently shown higher rates of heavy drinking and related problems: low-income African American men and older African American men.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Sobriety must be maintained to effectively care for one's children.

    “Second, sobriety must be maintained to effectively care for one’s children.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    African Americans have experienced dramatically different circumstances in relation to employment, adequate housing arrangements, and overall poverty than European Americans.

    “In sum, African Americans have experienced dramatically different circumstances in relation to employment, adequate housing arrangements, and overall poverty than European Americans.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Lack of access to life reinforcers appears greater for African American men compared to their female counterparts, placing this subgroup at heightened risk for heavy drinking and related problems.

    “this lack of access to life reinforcers appears to be greater for African American men compared to their female counterparts, which places this subgroup of individuals at a heightened risk for heavy drinking and related problems.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Policies were developed during this time to ensure physical separation of African Americans from European Americans in residential areas, restricting housing options for African Americans to least desirable residential areas, leading to physical segregation.

    “Policies were developed during this time to ensure the physical separation of African Americans from European Americans in residential areas, restricting housing options for African Americans to the least desirable residential areas (Cell, 1982; Fix & Struyk, 1993), thus leading to physical segregation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Cell, 1982

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Fix & Struyk, 1993

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    McKinnon and Humes (2000) reported that Non-Hispanic European Americans account for approximately 70% of total U.S. population but only 21.7% live in inner cities; African Americans account for about 12% of total U.S. population but more than one-half (55%) live in inner cities.

    “McKinnon and Humes (2000) reported that although Non-Hispanic European Americans account for approximately 70% of the total U.S. population, only one-fifth (21.7%) live in inner cities; in contrast, while African Americans account for about 12% of the total U.S. population, more than one-half of them (55%) live in inner cities.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites McKinnon and Humes, 2000

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The mother/care-giver role enabled very poor African American women to meet basic personal needs such as relatedness and competence and provided incentives not to pursue heavy alcohol consumption.

    “That role enabled them to meet basic personal needs such as for relatedness and competence (Ryan & Deci, 2002) and provided them with important incentives not to pursue the reinforcement associated with heavy alcohol consumption.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ryan & Deci, 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Poor African Americans were more likely to reside in isolated poor urban neighborhoods where a majority of residents were also unemployed and impoverished, whereas poor European Americans rarely lived in such neighborhoods.

    “poor African Americans were more likely to reside in isolated poor urban neighborhoods where a majority of residents were also unemployed and impoverished, whereas poor European Americans rarely lived in such neighborhoods (Wilson, 1987).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wilson, 1987

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Lower income African Americans faced more difficulties in access to welfare or social assistance programs.

    “lower income African Americans faced more difficulties in access to welfare or social assistance programs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    According to behavioral choice theory, behavior one engages in should be understood as representing a choice among a range of possible alternative behaviors.

    “According to behavioral choice theory, the behavior one engages in should be understood as representing a choice among a range of possible alternative behaviors (Rachlin, Logue, Gibbon, & Frankel, 1986).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rachlin, Logue, Gibbon, & Frankel, 1986

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Because SLRs tend not to be available, heavy drinking cannot cost access to them, reducing disincentive to drink and leading to higher levels of problem drinking among poor African American men.

    “Second, because SLRs tend not to be available, heavy drinking cannot cost access to them (e.g., there is no job to lose due to drunkenness). There is reduced disincentive to drink and hence higher levels of problem drinking.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Because African American communities typically have a strong female presence, many African American women care for other children, even if not their biological offspring, and thus must maintain sobriety.

    “because African American communities typically have a strong female presence, it is likely that many African American women care for other children, even if they are not their biological offspring (Burton et al., 1995; Fuller-Thomson & Minkler, 2000) and thus must maintain sobriety in order to adequately care of those who are dependent on them.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Burton et al., 1995

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Fuller-Thomson & Minkler, 2000

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Pager (2003) found that African Americans without a criminal record received callbacks 14% of the time compared to 34% for European Americans; among those with criminal records, rates were 5% for African Americans compared to 17% for European Americans.

    “Pager (2003) found striking racial differences in the rate of callbacks among both convicted and non-convicted individuals: African Americans without a criminal record received callbacks 14% of the time, compared to 34% for European Americans. Among those with criminal records, rates of callbacks were 5% for African Americans compared to 17% for European Americans.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Pager, 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Percentages of heavy alcohol consumption among African American men outnumber both African American women and European American men and women, especially in later adulthood.

    “These percentages of heavy alcohol consumption outnumber both African American women and European American men and women, especially in later adulthood (SAMSHA, 2010).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites SAMSHA, 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Poor African American men drink more, have few disincentives to drink, drink while older, and tend not to utilize health care services; this subgroup appears at increased risk for enduring prolonged and potentially fatal consequences from alcohol use.

    “Poor African American men drink more, they have few disincentives to drink, they drink while older, and they tend not to utilize health care services. This subgroup of African Americans appears to be at increased risk for enduring prolonged and potentially fatal consequences from their alcohol use.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    African Americans are more likely than European Americans to be impoverished, 23% compared to 8%, and experience unemployment rates twice as high.

    “African Americans are more likely than European Americans to be impoverished, 23% compared to 8%, respectively (McKinnon, 2003), and they experience unemployment rates that are twice as high (McKinnon, 2003; Stratton, 1993).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites McKinnon, 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Stratton, 1993

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Sobriety facilitates efforts to maintain employment, both in the short-term to retain TANF benefits and in the long-term once TANF assistance is finished.

    “Sobriety surely facilitates efforts to maintain employment, both in the short-term to retain TANF benefits and in the long-term once TANF assistance is finished.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    African Americans report more negative social consequences from drinking, higher rates of alcohol-related illness and injuries, and possibly higher rates of alcohol dependence diagnosis and symptoms compared to European Americans.

    “Specifically, they report more negative social consequences from drinking, higher rates of alcohol-related illness and injuries, and, possibly, higher rates of alcohol dependence diagnosis and symptoms compared to European Americans.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    We found clear evidence that very low income African American men appeared to be at the highest risk for heavy problematic drinking and for experiencing the highest rate of negative problems from drinking.

    “We found clear evidence that very low income African American men appeared to be at the highest risk for heavy problematic drinking and, in turn, for experiencing the highest rate of negative problems from drinking.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Premisecitation

    One important skill for adaptive functioning is the capacity not to respond to immediate urges or immediately available reinforcement if doing so undermines one's important long-term goals and interests.

    “One important skill for adaptive functioning is to have the capacity not to respond to immediate urges or immediately available reinforcement, if doing so undermines one’s important long-term goals and interests (Davidson, 2003).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Davidson, 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Negative consequences are at least in part due to possible underestimates of amount consumed by African Americans.

    “(d) possible underestimates of amount consumed by African Americans”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These practices have been maintained in the present day due to a combination of cultural norms and attitudes toward restricted use, high regard to religious beliefs and customs disapproving of alcohol use, and genetic vulnerability limiting the amount of alcohol necessary to experience the effects of alcohol.

    “These practices have been maintained in the present day due to a combination of cultural norms and attitudes toward restricted use, high regard to religious beliefs and customs disapproving of alcohol use, and genetic vulnerability limiting the amount of alcohol necessary to experience the effects of alcohol.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    When circumstances are such that one does not perceive a way to pursue important long-term interests, perhaps the normal developmental process of learning to pursue long-term goals does not occur in the same way.

    “When, as we have argued here, circumstances are such that one does not perceive a way to pursue important, long-term interests (one sees limited access to SLRs), perhaps what is thought of as a normal developmental process of learning to pursue long-term goals does not occur in the same way.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    African Americans have a long history of abstinence or restricted use of alcohol dating back to African culture, pre-slavery.

    “African Americans have a long history of abstinence or restricted use of alcohol dating back to African culture, pre-slavery.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    Negative consequences are at least in part due to characteristics of typical drinking contexts and the location of liquor stores.

    “(c) characteristics of typical drinking contexts and the location of liquor stores”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Because these men have restricted or limited access to SLRs, they are more likely to pursue the reinforcement associated with heavy drinking and have fewer disincentives for such heavy drinking.

    “We theorized that, because these men have restricted or limited access to standard life reinforcers (SLRs), such as adequate employment opportunities, financial stability, adequate housing, and responsibility for health care, they (a) are more likely to pursue the reinforcement associated with heavy drinking and (b) have fewer disincentives for such heavy drinking.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    These findings hold across development, with African Americans reporting lower rates of use and later initiation during adolescence, lower rates of drinking and binge drinking during college, and lower rates of heavy drinking into adulthood.

    “These findings hold across development, with African Americans reporting lower rates of use and later initiation of drinking during adolescence, report lower rates of drinking and binge drinking during college, and report lower rates of heavy drinking into adulthood (Caetano & Clark, 1998a; Faden, 2006; Wallace et al., 2003a).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Caetano & Clark, 1998a

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Faden, 2006

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Wallace et al., 2003a

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    If findings suggesting an association between the ADH1B*3 allele and negative health complications are accurate, then the subset of these individuals who have the genetic vulnerability to alcohol are at significantly high risk of liver disease and cirrhosis.

    “If findings suggesting an association between the ADH1B*3 allele and negative health complications are accurate, then the subset of these individuals who have the genetic vulnerability to alcohol are a significantly high risk of liver disease and cirrhosis (Ehlers et al., 2007).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ehlers et al., 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Overall, there appear to be several social, biological, and behavioral factors that place African Americans at higher risk of more severe consequences from drinking than European Americans, and for some the consequences are present regardless of level of consumption.

    “Overall, there appear to be several social, biological, and behavioral factors that place African Americans at higher risk of more severe consequences from drinking than European Americans, and for some the consequences are present regardless of level of consumption.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Because these factors are likely to persist over time, there is a higher rate of heavy drinking in older low-income African American men, placing them at further increased risk for health problems from their drinking.

    “We suggest that because these factors are likely to persist over time, there is a higher rate of heavy drinking in older low-income African American men, thus placing them at further increased risk for health problems from their drinking (NIAAA, 1998).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites NIAAA, 1998

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Overall, African Americans are less likely to have health care or utilize health services, such that if problems were to develop from use, they would be less likely to get needed treatment, resulting in higher severity and frequency of health problems from use.

    “The second is that, overall, African Americans are less likely to have health care or utilize health services, such that if problems were to develop from use, they would be less likely to get needed treatment, resulting in higher severity and frequency of health problems from use (Schmidt et al., 2007).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schmidt et al., 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Developmental science emphasizes the ongoing formation of the capacity to organize one's behavior around important goals.

    “Developmental science emphasizes the ongoing formation of the capacity to organize one’s behavior around important goals (Lerner, Freund, Stefanis, & Habermas, 2001).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lerner, Freund, Stefanis, & Habermas, 2001

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Compared to European American counterparts, African Americans as an overall group report higher rates of abstinence and lower rates of alcohol use based on both current and lifetime use.

    “Compared to their European American counterparts, African Americans, when considered as an overall group, report higher rates of abstinence and report lower rates of alcohol use based on both current and lifetime use (SAMHSA, 2010, 2011).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites SAMHSA, 2010, 2011

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Negative consequences are at least in part due to a genetic vulnerability that, though protective, may result in signs of intoxication after only moderate consumption, triggering both within-group and societal social sanctions.

    “(e) a genetic vulnerability that, though protective, may result in signs of intoxication after only moderate consumption, thus triggering both within-group and societal social sanctions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
89 of 89

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    No integrative theory has been developed to explain why African Americans tend to drink less than European Americans but experience higher rates of problems.

    “no integrative theory has been developed to explain why African Americans tend to drink less than members of the dominant, European American culture, but experience higher rates of problems.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Most research has been conducted using a comparative research design, failing to examine individual differences within the African American community.

    “most research has been conducted using a comparative research design, comparing the rate of African American use to that of the standard European American majority, thus failing to examine or explain individual differences in consumption or risk within the African American community.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    No large scale genetic study has been conducted among African Americans to directly test the hypothesis that ADH1B*3 is associated with lower consumption per occasion, reduced frequency of consumption, or less frequent binge or heavy drinking.

    “To date, no large scale genetic study has been conducted among African Americans to directly test the hypothesis that the presence of ADH1B*3 is associated with lower consumption per occasion, reduced frequency of consumption, or less frequent membership in binge drinker or heavy drinker groups.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Racial inequities cause distress among lower-income African American men.

    “the experiences of distress associated with racial inequities”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Limited access to standard life reinforcers is not likely to improve with age for low-income African American men.

    “the limited access to SLRs is not likely to improve with age”
5 of 5

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Asian American youth delay onset of substance use.

    “Asian American youth delay onset of substance use (Kosterman et al., 2000; Zapolski et al., 2014, respectively) while American Indian/Alaska Natives begin substance use earlier than national averages (Whitesell et al., 2014).”

    From Assessment of culture and environment in the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development Study: Rationale, description of measures, and early data (2018) · cites this paper as Zapolski et al., 2014

    In “Lower Alcohol Use among African Americans Compared to European Americans” (page unavailable), the paper says African American youth begin drinking later than European American youth. It does not establish delayed onset of substance use among Asian American youth; both the population and the scope of use differ from the claim. (LLM, conf=0.88)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Past-year drinking rates conflict with reported abstinence rates

    Minor

    If 36% of African American men and 55% of African American women never drink or drink less than once a year, the remaining 64% of men and 45% of women drink at least annually. Those shares conflict with the stated figures of 21% and 10% who had at least one drink in the past year.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

1 of the 297 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 15

  1. Belgrave FZ Townsend TG Cherry VR Cunningham DM The influence of an Africentric world-view and demographic variables on drug knowledge, attitudes, and use among African American youth Journal of Community Psychology 1997 25 421 433
  2. Broman C Perceived discrimination and alcohol use among Black and White college students Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education 2007 51 8 16 Retrieved from http://www.unomaha.edu/~healthed/JADE.html
  3. Brook JS Brook DW Pahl K Liddle HA Row CL The developmental context for adolescent substance use intervention Adolescent substance abuse: Research and clinical advances 2006 New York: NY Cambridge University Press 25 51
  4. Feagin JR Feagin CB Racial and Ethnic Relations 1999 6th Ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ Prentice Hall
  5. Fiske ST Taylor SE Social Cognition 1991 New York, NY McGraw Hill
  6. Hesselbrock VM Hesselbrock MN Miller KM Carroll WR Developmental perspectives of the risk of developing substance problems Rethinking substance abuse: What the science shows, and what we should do about it 2006 New York, NY Guilford Press 97 114
  7. James SH Johnson SL Doing drugs: Patterns of African American addiction 1996 Austin, TX University of Texas Press
  8. Levin JS Taylor RJ Gender differences in religiosity over the life cycle among Black Americans The Gerontologist 1993 33 16 23 8440497
  9. Lincoln CE Harris HW Blue HC Griffith EEH Black religion and racial identity Racial and ethnic identity: Psychological development and creative expression 1995 New York, NY Routledge 209 211
  10. Martin JK Tuch SA Roman PA Dixon J Patterns of problem drinking among employed African American men: Preliminary results from a national study Challenge: A Journal of Research on African-American Men 2004 11 33 66
  11. McKay NY Personal Narratives Group Nineteenth-century Black women’s spiritual autobiographies: Religious faith and self-empowerment Interpreting women’s lives: Feminist theory and personal narratives 1989 Bloomington, IN University Press 139 154
  12. Sher KJ Children of alcoholics: A critical appraisal of theory and research 1991 Chicago, IL University of Chicago Press
  13. Spillane NS Smith GT Kahler CW Perceived access to important reinforcers as a function of alcohol consumption among American Indians Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research (in press) PMC4068243 22823415
  14. Stewart C Power TG Ethnic, social class, and gender differences in adolescent drinking: Examining multiple aspects of consumption Journal of Adolescent Research 2003 18 575 598
  15. Wilson WJ The truly disadvantaged 1987 Chicago University of Chicago Press

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Related

Authors
Zapolski, T. C. B., Pedersen, S. L., McCarthy, D. M., & Smith, G. T.
Affiliations
  • University of Kentucky (US)
  • University of Pittsburgh (US)
  • University of Missouri (US)
ORCID
Venue
Psychological Bulletin
Publisher
American Psychological Association (APA)
Published
2014-01
Volume
140
Issue
1
Pages
188-223
ISSN
  • 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
  • 1939-1455
DOI
10.1037/a0032113
PMC
PMC3758406
OpenAlex
W2068626373
Semantic Scholar
4a73e61dac15d0b189e15a4a876a8dfa8fd3e251
Cited by
366
References
297
Citations by year
2026: 21 · 2025: 29 · 2024: 32 · 2023: 28 · 2022: 31 · 2021: 47 · 2020: 30 · 2019: 37 · 2018: 28 · 2017: 28 · 2016: 33 · 2015: 18 · 2014: 4
FWCI
13.36
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (R01 AA016166, F31 AA017571, T32 AA007453, K01 AA021135, R01 AA019546)
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Pathology and Forensic Medicine › Alcohol Consumption and Health Effects
Keywords
alcohol problems, heavy drinking, alcoholism, housing discrimination, racism, within-group variation, risk and protective factors
MeSH terms
Alcohol Drinking, Alcoholism, Black or African American, Female, Humans, Male, Racism

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-10.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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