Is life more difficult on mars or venus? A meta-analytic review of sex differences in major and minor life events

Davis, Mary C.; Matthews, Karen A.; Twamley, Elizabeth W.

doi:10.1007/bf02895038

Cited by 208Health and Well-being StudiesChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional DevelopmentGender Roles and Identity Studies

Is life more difficult on mars or venus? A meta-analytic review of sex differences in major and minor life events

Davis, Mary C., Matthews, Karen A., Twamley, Elizabeth W.·1999·Annals of Behavioral Medicine

DOI 10.1007/bf02895038

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Abstract

We conducted a meta-analysis of studies examining sex differences in reported levels of stress, considering the impact of: (a) the age and representativeness of sample participants, (b) whether life events were weighted or unweighted by participants for impact or severity, (c) the major versus minor nature of the stress, and (d) the life domain of the stressor. Overall, the meta-analysis of 119 studies including 83,559 participants found that females were exposed to more stress than were males (d=.123, r=.061). However, there was considerable heterogeneity among studies, with greater effect sizes associated with: (a) life events weighted by participants for impact, (b) adolescents compared to both younger and older samples, (c) major life stressors compared to minor stressors, and (d) interpersonal relationship stressors compared to work stressors. In none of the subgroup analyses did males experience considerably more stress than females. Evaluation of a subsample of 39 studies that examined gender differences in psychological symptoms revealed that females reported more symptoms of depression, anxiety, and psychosomatic problems (d=.282, r=.139) and that the sex difference in reports of psychological symptoms accounted for approximately 4% of the variance in the sex differences in reports of stress. Possible explanations for the observed patterning of effects are discussed, as are recommendations for further research.

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Females report higher levels of stress appraisal than males, with SMD = 0.24.
“and Stress appraisal (SMD = 0.24; Davis et al., 1999).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Davis et al., 1999
No consistent pattern is seen between living conditions and sex differences in stress appraisal.
“or Stress appraisal (Davis et al., 1999).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Davis et al., 1999

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Personality, Life Events and Coping in the Oldest-Old
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The relationship between residentsʼ characteristics, their stress experiences, and their psychosocial adjustment at one medical school
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Students' Stress, Distress, and Achievement in an Urban Intermediate School
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Instrumentality as a life-stress moderator for early versus middle adolescents.
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Hassles, Role Strain, and Peer Relations in Young Adolescents
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We've All Got Scars
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Locus of control, life stress, and social networks: Gender differences in the health status of the elderly
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Perception and experience of types of social stress and self-image among adolescents
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Coping Strategies: A Rural-Urban Comparison
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Gender Differences in Fire Fighter Job Stressors and Symptoms of Stress
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Control over uplifts and hassles and its relationship to adaptational outcomes
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Reporting of life events, family history of hypertension, and cardiovascular activity at rest and during psychological stress
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Self-administered nicotine-dependence scale (SANDS): Item selection, reliability estimation, and initial validation
Davis, L. J., Hurt, R. D., Offord, K. P., Lauger, G. G., Morse, R. M., & Bruce, B. K. (1994) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/1097-4679(199411)50:6 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
The importance of chronicity and controllability of stress in the context of stress-illness relationships
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A life-span developmental approach to the study of stressful events
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Psychosocial factors in outcome in two opiate addiction treatments
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The influences of gender and grade on perceived work stress and job satisfaction in white collar employees
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Psychological androgyny and stressful life events.
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Relationships among Type A behavior, employment experiences, and gender: The Minnesota heart survey
Sorensen, G., Jacobs, D. R., Pirie, P. L., Folsom, A. R., Luepker, R. V., & Gillum, R. F. (1987) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/bf00846473 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Life events, social problems and physical health status as predictors of emotional distress in men and women in a community setting
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Gender differences in the relation between stressful life events and adjustment among school-aged children
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Stress and Depression in High School Students
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Chief Student Affairs Officers: Stressors and Strategies.
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Contributors to the Appraisal of Major Life Changes: Gender, Perceived Controllability, Sensation Seeking, Strain, and Social Support
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Effects of Living Status, Gender, and Year in College on College Students' Self-Esteem and Life-Change Experiences
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The relationship of coronary-prone behavior pattern to the health of college students at varying levels of recent life change
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SCHOOL STRESS REPORTED BY CHILDREN IN GRADES 4, 5, AND 6
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Gender differences in relating life events and well-being in elderly individuals
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Gender Differences in Perceptions of Stress-Related Variables: Do the People Make the Place or Does the Place Make the People?
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The Relationship Among Negative Life Events, Cognitions, and Depression Within Three Generations
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Sex differences in reporting and rating of life events: A comparison of diabetic and healthy subjects
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Differences in mothers' and children's perceptions of urban black children's life stress
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Ethnic and Gender Differences in Student-Athletes' Responses to Stressful Life Events.
Smallman, E. (1991) · Journal of college student development · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Subject age and gender as predictors of life stress, attributional style, and personal adjustment.
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Age and Sex Differences in Negative Life Events and Student Services Usage.
Okun, M. A. (1986) · Journal of College Student Personnel · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Factorial structure of the aftermath of suicide instrument
Spence, N. D., Goldney, R. D., & Moffitt, P. F. (1984) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/1097-4679(198411)40:6 · Cited by 2 · see citing works

Flagged first, then by citations

2 of the 153 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Sorted by citations

Biobehavioral responses to stress in females: Tend-and-befriend, not fight-or-flight.
Taylor, S. E., Klein, L. C., Lewis, B. P., Gruenewald, T. L., Gurung, R. A. R., & Updegraff, J. A. (2000) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.107.3.411 · Cited by 3,308 · see citing works
Gender Differences in Caregiver Stressors, Social Resources, and Health: An Updated Meta-Analysis
Pinquart, M., & Sorensen, S. (2006) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences · doi:10.1093/geronb/61.1.p33 · Cited by 1,213 · see citing works
Who's Stressed? Distributions of Psychological Stress in the United States in Probability Samples from 1983, 2006, and 2009 <sup>1</sup>
COHEN, S., & JANICKI‐DEVERTS, D. (2012) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2012.00900.x · Cited by 1,187 · see citing works
The ABCs of depression: integrating affective, biological, and cognitive models to explain the emergence of the gender difference in depression
Hyde, J. S., Mezulis, A. H., & Abramson, L. Y. (2008) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.115.2.291 · Cited by 1,146 · see citing works
Distress in couples coping with cancer: A meta-analysis and critical review of role and gender effects.
Hagedoorn, M., Sanderman, R., Bolks, H. N., Tuinstra, J., & Coyne, J. C. (2008) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.134.1.1 · Cited by 777 · see citing works
“…cancer, the gender difference in distress may simply reflect the gender difference generally found in the normal population (Gore & Mangione, 1983; Mirowsky & Ross, 1995; Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, & Grayson, 1999; for reviews, see Davis et al., 1999; Mirowsky & Ross, 1986; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001).”
BackgroundInfluential
Association between psychological distress and mortality: individual participant pooled analysis of 10 prospective cohort studies
Russ, T. C., Stamatakis, E., Hamer, M., Starr, J. M., Kivimaki, M., & Batty, G. D. (2012) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.e4933 · Cited by 637 · see citing works
A Growing Role for Gender Analysis in Air Pollution Epidemiology
Clougherty, J. E. (2009) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.0900994 · Cited by 608 · see citing works
Positive Affect as a Source of Resilience for Women in Chronic Pain.
Zautra, A. J., Johnson, L. M., & Davis, M. C. (2005) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.73.2.212 · Cited by 567 · see citing works
Self-citation
Ten Surprising Facts About Stressful Life Events and Disease Risk
Cohen, S., Murphy, M. L. M., & Prather, A. A. (2019) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010418-102857 · Cited by 531 · see citing works
“In particular, a meta-analysis of 119 studies published between 1960 and 1996 found that women consistently reported greater exposure to stressful events than men across domains, including in both interpersonal and work domains (Davis et al. 1999).”
Background
The health of men: structured inequalities and opportunities
Williams, D. R. (2008) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.98.supplement_1.s150 · Cited by 485 · see citing works
“Men are socialized to project strength, individuality, autonomy, dominance, stoicism, and physical aggression, and to avoid demonstrations of emotion or vulnerability that could be construed as weakness.(37,38) These cultural orientations and structural opportunities combine to increase health risks.”
Background
Evaluating gender similarities and differences using metasynthesis.
Zell, E., Križan, Z., & Teeter, S. R. (2015) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/a0038208 · Cited by 438 · see citing works
Gender differences in depression and anxiety across the adult lifespan: the role of psychosocial mediators
Leach, L. S., Christensen, H., Mackinnon, A. J., Windsor, T. D., & Butterworth, P. (2008) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-008-0388-z · Cited by 413 · see citing works
Gender Differences in Depression: Biological, Affective, Cognitive, and Sociocultural Factors
Hyde, J. S., & Mezulis, A. H. (2020) · Harvard Review of Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/hrp.0000000000000230 · Cited by 385 · see citing works
“12.(54) Gender differences in the appraisals of the negative eventswere larger than gender differences in exposure: d = 0.”
Background
The Health of Men: Structured Inequalities and Opportunities
Williams, D. R. (2003) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.93.5.724 · Cited by 397 · see citing works
Sex differences in anxiety and emotional behavior
Donner, N. C., & Lowry, C. A. (2013) · Pflügers Archiv - European Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00424-013-1271-7 · Cited by 379 · see citing works
“In developed, but not in developing, countries, women are two to three times more likely than men to suffer from GAD and have higher self-reported anxiety scores [90, 138, 215, 396].”
Background
Chronic stress burden, discrimination, and subclinical carotid artery disease in African American and Caucasian women.
Troxel, W., Matthews, K. A., Bromberger, J. T., & Sutton‐Tyrrell, K. (2003) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/0278-6133.22.3.300 · Cited by 342 · see citing works
Self-citation
Meta-analysis of depression and substance use among individuals with alcohol use disorders
Conner, K. R., Pinquart, M., & Gamble, S. A. (2009) · Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2008.11.007 · Cited by 337 · see citing works
“…men and women is also generally consistent with extant data including a meta-analysis of depression and stressful life events in the general population (Davis et al., 1999) that showed gender differences (r=.14) that were similar to the gender differences found in the current meta-analysis (r=.12).”
Result
The anatomy of pain and suffering in the brain and its clinical implications
Ridder, D. D., Adhia, D. B., & Vanneste, S. (2021) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.08.013 · Cited by 276 · see citing works
“They have twice the lifetime rates of depression and most anxiety disorders (Kessler et al., 1994; Gater et al., 1998; Weissman et al., 1996; Altemus et al., 2014; Davis et al., 1999; McCarthy et al., 2017).”
Background
Depression in Children and Adolescents
Garber, J. (2006) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2006.07.007 · Cited by 263 · see citing works
Perceived Discrimination, Perceived Stress, and Mental and Physical Health Among Mexican-Origin Adults
Flores, E., Tschann, J. M., Dimas, J. M., Bachen, E. A., Pasch, L. A., & de Groat, C. L. (2008) · Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1177/0739986308323056 · Cited by 259 · see citing works
“…typically feel obligated to meet the needs of the family, even if they work outside the home; therefore, they are likely to experience more stress due to concerns about problems experienced by a wide range of persons in their family and social networks (Davis et al., 1999; Turner & Avison, 2003).”
BackgroundResult
Characteristics, correlates, and outcomes of childhood and adolescent depressive disorders
Rao, U., & Chen, L.-A. (2009) · Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.31887/dcns.2009.11.1/urao · Cited by 252 · see citing works
The burden of air pollution on years of life lost in Beijing, China, 2004-08: retrospective regression analysis of daily deaths
Guo, Y., Li, S., Tian, Z., Pan, X., Zhang, J., & Williams, G. M. (2013) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.f7139 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
Stress, coping, and health outcomes among African-Americans: a review of the John Henryism hypothesis
Bennett, G. G., Merritt, M. M., Sollers III, J. J., Edwards, C. L., Whitfield, K. E., Brandon, D. T., & Tucker, R. D. (2004) · Psychology & Health · doi:10.1080/0887044042000193505 · Cited by 213 · see citing works
“Additionally, despite their greater exposure to stress (Davis et al., 1999), women are less reactive to it (Stoney et al., 1988; Girdler et al., 1990).”
Background
A growing role for gender analysis in air pollution epidemiology
Clougherty, J. E. (2011) · Ciência & Saúde Coletiva · doi:10.1590/s1413-81232011000400021 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
Adolescent Self‐Consciousness: Longitudinal Age Changes and Gender Differences in Two Cohorts
Rankin, J. L., Lane, D. J., Gibbons, F. X., & Gerrard, M. (2004) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2004.01401001.x · Cited by 186 · see citing works
Stress, Glucocorticoids, and Memory: A Meta-analytic Review
Sauro, M. D., Jorgensen, R. S., & Pedlow, C. T. (2003) · Stress · doi:10.1080/10253890310001616482 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
“, 1997b; McEwen, 1998) and gender (Davis et al., 1999) on stress reactivity and therefore, no a priori predictions were made for these variables.”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Patterns of Violent Relationships, Psychological Distress, and Marital Satisfaction in a National Sample of Men and Women
Williams, S. L., & Frieze, I. H. (2005) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-005-4198-4 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
“Indeed, several past studies have found evidence for general patterns of gender differences in reports of mental health (e.g., Almeida & Kessler, 1998; Davis, Matthews, & Twamley, 1999; Kessler, 2000).”
Background
Coping With Relationship Stressors: A Decade Review
Seiffge-Krenke, I. (2011) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00723.x · Cited by 187 · see citing works
A socio-relational framework of sex differences in the expression of emotion
Vigil, J. M. (2009) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x09991075 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
“Compared to males, girls and women report higher levels of negative life experiences (Davis et al. 1999; Pinquart & Sörensen 2006), lower self-esteem, and exaggerated symptoms of depression following a traumatic experience (e.g., Kling et al. 1999; Marttunen et al. 1995; Parslow et al. 2006;…”
Background
Severe Fatigue in Adolescents: A Common Phenomenon?
ter Wolbeek, M., van Doornen, L. J. P., Kavelaars, A., & Heijnen, C. J. (2006) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2005-2575 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Stress and Emotional Reactivity as Explanations for Gender Differences in Adolescents’ Depressive Symptoms
Charbonneau, A. M., Mezulis, A. H., & Hyde, J. S. (2009) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-009-9398-8 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
“In a meta-analysis of studies conducted on gender differences in stress, Davis et al. (1999) similarly concluded that females report only marginally higher levels of stress than to do males.”
The relation of anxiety, depression, and stress to binge eating behavior
Rosenbaum, D. L., & White, K. S. (2015) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/1359105315580212 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
“Supporting previous literature that has examined gender differences in negative affect outside the context of BED (Davis et al., 1999; McLean and Anderson, 2009; Pigott, 2003), women in this study also reported higher levels of anxiety and stress compared to men.”
Result
Chronic stress influences cardiovascular and neuroendocrine responses during acute stress and recovery, especially in men
Matthews, K. A., Gump, B. B., & Owens, J. F. (2001) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/0278-6133.20.6.403 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
Self-citation
Separation as a suicide risk factor
Wyder, M., Ward, P., & Leo, D. D. (2009) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2008.11.007 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
“…to suicide, as males are more likely to avoid demonstrations of emotion or vulnerability that could be construed as weakness (Courtenay, 2000; Davis et al., 1999); to inhibit emotional expressiveness and choose aggression and risk-taking as responses to stressful events (Grossman and Wood,…”
Background
Stability of peer victimization in early adolescence: Effects of timing and duration
Rueger, S. Y., Malecki, C. K., & Demaray, M. K. (2011) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2011.04.005 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Predictors of depression, stress, and anxiety among non-tenure track faculty
Reevy, G. M., & Deason, G. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00701 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
“ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE published: 08 July 2014 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00701 Predictors of depression, stress, and anxiety among non-tenure track faculty”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Vegans report less stress and anxiety than omnivores
Beezhold, B., Radnitz, C. L., Rinne, A., & DiMatteo, J. (2014) · Nutritional Neuroscience · doi:10.1179/1476830514y.0000000164 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Physiologic Markers of Chronic Stress in Premenopausal, Middle-Aged Women
Powell, L. H., Lovallo, W. R., Matthews, K. A., Meyer, P., MIDGLEY, A. R., Baum, A. E., Stone, A. A., Underwood, L., McCann, J. J., Herro, K. J., et al. (2002) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/00006842-200205000-00015 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
“It is difficult to generalize these results to women because women are exposed to more stress (10), report more symptoms of stress (10, 11), have different perceptions of stress (11), and have different patterns of neuroendocrine reactivity to stress (12, 13).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Religious Service Attendance and Allostatic Load Among High-Functioning Elderly
Maselko, J., Kubzansky, L., Kawachi, I., Seeman, T., & Berkman, L. (2007) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/psy.0b013e31806c7c57 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
“First, although women live longer than men, they experience higher levels of morbidity as well as more negative life events (50), potentially making the support offered by religious groups more integral to elderly women’s health.”
Background
Gender differences in the psychosocial experience of parents of children with cancer: a review of the literature
Clarke, N. E., McCarthy, M., Downie, P., Ashley, D. M., & Anderson, V. A. (2009) · Psycho-Oncology · doi:10.1002/pon.1515 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
“Potential explanations for this discrepancy between parents include greater exposure of mothers to role-related stress (due to a higher level of day-to-day involvement in the child’s care) [5], greater salience of the parental identity and interpersonal relationships in women [16,18], general population differences be…”
Background
Stressful events, personality, and mood disturbance:
King, A. C., Bernardy, N. C., & Hauner, K. K. Y. (2002) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/s0306-4603(01)00264-7 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
The Roles of Stress and Coping in Explaining Gender Differences in Risk for Psychopathology Among African American Urban Adolescents
Carlson, G. A., & Grant, K. (2008) · The Journal of Early Adolescence · doi:10.1177/0272431608314663 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Gender Differences in the Cognitive Vulnerability-Stress Model of Depression in the Transition to Adolescence
Mezulis, A. H., Funasaki, K., Charbonneau, A. M., & Hyde, J. S. (2009) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-009-9281-7 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
“Our results are consistent with the extant literature on gender differences in stress in adolescence, which suggest that gender differences in stress emerge only in adolescence and are modest at best (Davis et al. 1999; Ge et al. 1994).”
Result
Gender, age and tenure as moderators of work-related stressors' relationships with job performance: A meta-analysis
Shirom, A., Gilboa, S. S., Fried, Y., & Cooper, C. (2008) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/0018726708095708 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
“…of women employees in each study as a potential moderator of the above linkages is theoretically meaningful because past quantitative reviews (Davis et al., 1999; Tamres et al., 2002) found that women tend to appraise stressors as more severe and are predisposed to use different coping…”
Background
Air pollution shortens life expectancy and health expectancy for older adults: the case of China
Wen, M., & Gu, D. (2012) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences · doi:10.1093/gerona/gls094 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Development of the Perceived Stress Questionnaire for Young Women
Bell, S., & Lee, C. (2002) · Psychology Health & Medicine · doi:10.1080/13548500120116085 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
“Further, their effect is independent of life events, so that they cannot be seen merely as moderators between life events and health (Chamberlain & Zika, 1990; Davis et al., 1999; Ruf n, 1993).”
Background
Coping Styles and Sex Differences in Depressive Symptoms and Delinquent Behavior
Kort‐Butler, L. A. (2008) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-008-9291-x · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Perceived Behavioral Integrity: Relationships with Employee Attitudes, Well-Being, and Absenteeism
Prottas, D. J. (2007) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-007-9496-z · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Life events and adolescent depressive symptoms: Protective factors associated with resilience
Askeland, K. G., Bøe, T., Breivik, K., Greca, A. M. L., Sivertsen, B., & Hysing, M. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0234109 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
“Similar to previous studies, we found that girls reported more symptoms of depression [5, 8] and a higher number of negative life events [29] compared to boys.”
BackgroundResult
Tecnologías de la Información y la Comunicación (TIC): abuso de Internet, videojuegos, teléfonos móviles, mensajería instantánea y redes sociales mediante el MULTICAGE-TIC
Pérez, E. J. P., de León, J. M. R. S., Mota, G. R., Luque, M. L., Pedrero-Aguilar, J., Morales-Alonso, S., & García, C. P. (2017) · Adicciones · doi:10.20882/adicciones.806 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Conflict and collaboration in middle-aged and older couples: II. Cardiovascular reactivity during marital interaction.
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Too much to do, too little time: Role overload and stress in a multi-role environment.
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Cardiovascular Reactivity During Positive and Negative Marital Interactions
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“Problems in close relationships are common and generally more troubling to women than men (Davis et al. 1999), perhaps due to female gender roles that emphasize the importance of relationship quality (Cross and Madson 1997; Helgeson 1994).”
Background
Explaining Gender Differences in Depression: an Interpersonal Contingent Self-Esteem Perspective
Cambron, M., Acitelli, L., & Pettit, J. (2009) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-009-9616-6 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
“Women are more likely than men to experience negative events, particularly events that are interpersonal and especially events involving peers (see Davis et al. 1999; Hankin et al. 2007; Leadbeater et al. 1995 ;N olen-Hoeksema 2001; Rudolph and Hammen 1999).”
Background
The association between chronic stress type and C-reactive protein in the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis: does gender make a difference?
Shivpuri, S., Gallo, L. C., Crouse, J. R., & Allison, M. (2011) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-011-9345-5 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“Studies appear to consistently show that females report more chronic stressors related to interpersonal relationships (e.g., friends, relatives, acquaintances in social network) than males (Barker, 2007; Davis, et al., 1999; Liu & Alloy, 2010; McIntyre, et al., 2008; Shih, et al., 2006).”
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Ambient particulate air pollution (PM2.5) is associated with the ratio of type 2 diabetes to obesity
Mazidi, M., & Speakman, J. R. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-08287-1 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Stressful Life Events and Subjective Well-Being in Vocational School Female Adolescents: The Mediating Role of Depression and the Moderating Role of Perceived Social Support
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“, interpersonal conflicts) in daily life (Davis et al., 1999; Helgeson, 2011; McLeod et al., 2016).”
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Attributable risk of ambient PM10 on daily mortality and years of life lost in Chengdu, China
Chen, F., Deng, Z., Deng, Y., Qiao, Z., Lan, L., Meng, Q., Luo, B., Zhang, W., Ji, K., Qiao, X., et al. (2017) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.12.151 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Separation as an Important Risk Factor for Suicide: A Systematic Review
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“All other subcategories were investigated in single studies: Nightmare (frequency; Schredl & Reinhard, 2011) and Stress appraisal (Davis et al., 1999) were assessed in the new analyses, whereas Internet addiction (Su et al., 2019), Problem behavior in adolescents (Thijs et al., 2015), and Life…”
Influential
Explaining the Female Preponderance in Adolescent Depression—A Four-Wave Cohort Study
Morken, I. S., Viddal, K. R., von Soest, T., & Wichstrøm, L. (2023) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-023-01031-6 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Even though a prior meta-analysis indicated that girls are exposed to more SLEs than boys, particularly during adolescence (Davis et al., 1999), later studies have not found gender differences in SLEs in adolescence (Jenness et al.”
Result
Differences on Psychosocial Outcomes Between Male and Female Caregivers of Children With Life-Limiting Illnesses
Schneider, M., Steele, R., Cadell, S., & Hemsworth, D. (2010) · Journal of Pediatric Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.pedn.2010.01.007 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Air pollution and fasting blood glucose: A longitudinal study in China
Chen, L., Zhou, Y., Li, S., Williams, G. M., Kan, H., Marks, G. B., Morawska, L., Abramson, M. J., Chen, S., Yao, T., et al. (2015) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.09.132 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
The Mediating Effects of Situational Control on Social Support and Mood Following a Stressor.
Atienza, A. A., Collins, R., & King, A. (2001) · The journals of gerontology. Series B, Psychological sciences and social sciences · doi:10.1093/geronb/56.3.s129 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“…& Twamley, 1999; Kessler, McLeod, & Wethington, 1985; Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, & Gray son, 1999), appraise undesirable effects as more stressful (Davis et al., 1999), believe that they have less personal control or mastery (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999), and report greater psychological distress…”
Background
Sex differences in yohimbine‐induced increases in the reinforcing efficacy of nicotine in adolescent rats
Li, S., Zou, S., Coen, K. M., Funk, D. R., Shram, M. J., & Lê, A. D. (2012) · Addiction Biology · doi:10.1111/j.1369-1600.2012.00473.x · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“There are also sex differences in stress responses in adolescent humans: female adolescents report higher levels of stress and are more likely to develop stress-related psychopathologies (Davis et al. 1999).”
Background
Stress perception following childhood adversity: Unique associations with adversity type and sex
LoPilato, A. M., Addington, J., Bearden, C. E., Cadenhead, K. S., Cannon, T. D., Cornblatt, B. A., Mathalon, D. H., McGlashan, T. H., Perkins, D. O., Tsuang, M. T., et al. (2019) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579419000130 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“In regards to subjective perceived stress reporting, a large meta-analysis concluded that there are robust sex differences in the appraisal of stressful events relative to actual stress exposures, with females endorsing higher levels of perceived stress (Davis et al., 1999).”
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Psychological distress, stressful life events, and religiosity in younger African American adults
Lesniak, K. T., Rudman, W. J., Rector, M., & Elkin, T. D. (2005) · Mental Health Religion & Culture · doi:10.1080/13674670512331389533 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“Although little is known about minority women, these increased distress levels may relate to an increased predisposition to appraise events as more stressful, a predisposition found in Caucasian women (Davis et al., 1999).”
Background
Effects of Life Events and Social Isolation on Stroke and Coronary Heart Disease
Gronewold, J., Engels, M., de Velde, S. M. V., Cudjoe, T., Duman, E.-E., Jokisch, M., Kleinschnitz, C., Lauterbach, K. W., Erbel, R. M., Jöckel, K., et al. (2021) · Stroke · doi:10.1161/strokeaha.120.032070 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Sex-Dependent Dissociation between Emotional Appraisal and Memory: A Large-Scale Behavioral and fMRI Study
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“…in human research, including biological markers, physiological measurements, behavior, neuropsychological traits, or neuropsychiatric disorders (Davis et al., 1999; Holden, 2005; Kudielka and Kirschbaum, 2005; McCarthy and Konkle, 2005; Cahill, 2006, 2014; Tolin and Foa, 2006; Andreano and…”
Background
Gender, the Stress Process, and Health
Longest, K. C., & Thoits, P. A. (2012) · Society and Mental Health · doi:10.1177/2156869312451151 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“…affective disorder, and physical ill health remain significant in standard regression models that incorporate a broad range of stressors (e.g., Davis et al. 1999; Denton, Prus, and Walters 2004; Ensel and Lin 2000; McDonough and Walters 2001; Turner and Avison 2003; Turner et al. 1995), the…”
Background
Stressful Life Events and Depressive Symptoms
You, S., & Conner, K. R. (2009) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/nmd.0b013e3181be7841 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“A meta-analysis regarding gender differences in major and minor life events (Davis et al., 1999) showed that women are more likely than men to make negative appraisals of stressful life events, suggesting that the relationship between life stress and depression may differ by gender due to gender differences in their p…”
Background
Exposure to Community Violence and the Trajectory of Internalizing and Externalizing Symptoms in a Sample of Low-Income Urban Youth
Taylor, J. J., Grant, K. E., Zulauf-McCurdy, C. A., Fowler, P. J., Meyerson, D. A., & Irsheid, S. B. (2016) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2016.1152553 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Psychological and Physical Health of Nonoffending Parents After Disclosure of Sexual Abuse of Their Child
Cyr, M., Frappier, J., Hébert, M., Tourigny, M., McDuff, P., & Turcotte, M.-È. (2016) · Journal of Child Sexual Abuse · doi:10.1080/10538712.2016.1228726 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“In a meta-analytic review of 119 studies of gender differences in facing life events, Davis, Matthews, and Twamley (1999) found that, overall, women subjectively reported being exposed to more stressors, symptoms of depression, anxiety, and psychosomatic problems compared to men.”
Background
Patterns of interpersonal problems in irritable bowel syndrome patients
Lackner, J. M., & Gurtman, M. B. (2005) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2005.02.015 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“We also recognize that, although interpersonal difficulties are the most common and distressing type of stressors experienced by females [51], the interpersonal difficulties identified through retrospective self-report may not necessarily correspond with stressors that influence stress reactivity and/or aggravate IBS…”
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Arab American Mental Health in the Post September 11 Era: Acculturation, Stress, and Coping
Amer, M. M. (2005) · OhioLink ETD Center (Ohio Library and Information Network) · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Relationships between childhood trauma and perceived stress in the general population: a network perspective
Betz, L. T., Penzel, N., Rosen, M., & Kambeitz, J. P. (2020) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s003329172000135x · Cited by 41 · see citing works
PTSD, depression and anxiety in Ebola virus disease survivors in Beni town, Democratic Republic of the Congo
Kaputu-Kalala-Malu, C., Musalu, É. M., Walker, T., Ntumba-Tshitenge, O., & Ahuka‐Mundeke, S. (2021) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-021-03343-7 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Displacement Behaviour Is Associated with Reduced Stress Levels among Men but Not Women
Mohiyeddini, C., Bauer, S., & Semple, S. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0056355 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“Sex differences in the experience and the impact of stress are well documented; along a number of different dimensions, women experience markedly more stress than men [1].”
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Gender differences and the relationships of perceived background stress and psychological distress with cardiovascular responses to laboratory stressors
Allen, M. T., Bocek, C. M. J., & Burch, A. E. (2011) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2011.06.013 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“In a metaanalysis of 119 studies of stress experiences, Davis et al. (1999) found that women experienced more stress than men along a number of dimensions.”
Background
Self-Rated Health Status and Subjective Health Complaints Associated with Health-Promoting Lifestyles among Urban Chinese Women: A Cross-Sectional Study
Cheng, J., Wang, T., Li, F., Xiao, Y., Bi, J., Chen, J., Sun, X., Wu, L., Wu, S., Liu, Y., et al. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0117940 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“Urban women fulfill multiple social roles and report higher stress and health problems [5, 6], owing to more work, educational and economic pressures than rural women [7] in addition to continued responsibility for their homes and children, resulting in higher total workload and less time to attend to their own needs,…”
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Self-Focused Attention and Mood During Everyday Social Interactions
Flory, J. D., Räikkönen, K., Matthews, K. A., & Owens, J. F. (2000) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167200269012 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
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The Influence of Voice Volume, Pitch, and Speech Rate on Progressive Relaxation Training: Application of Methods from Speech Pathology and Audiology
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Diferencias de sexo en la prevalencia y severidad de trastornos psiquiátricos en adolescentes de la Ciudad de México
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Elite Sport is Not an Additional Source of Distress for Adolescents with High Stress Levels
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Switching Dynamics and the Stress Process
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Depression in Children and Adolescents
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Examining the Link Between Perceptions of Relationship Quality With Parole Officers and Recidivism Among Female Youth Parolees
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“Essentially, interpersonal relationships become critical components of character development, sense of self, and well-being among adolescent girls (Davis et al., 1999; Maccoby, 1990; Rosenberg & Simmons, 1975).”
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The psychosocial costs of conflict management styles
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“[19] Although both boys and girls have the same level of worry regarding academics and economics, girls are much more vulnerable to increased stress when it comes to issues related to future events, classmates, and personal health.[20] Adolescent girls are found to perceive negative interpersonal events as more stress…”
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Natural Course of Recurrent Psychological Distress in Adulthood
Jokela, M., Singh-Manoux, A., Shipley, M., Ferrie, J., Gimeno, D., Akbaraly, T., Head, J., Elovainio, M., Marmot, M., & Kivimäki, M. (2010) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2010.10.047 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“The gender difference in depression and psychological distress is well-established (Boughton and Street, 2007; Davis et al., 1999; Hyde et al., 2008), but the rate of depression recurrence seems to be equal in men and women (Burcusa and Iacono, 2007; Luijendijk et al., 2008).”
Background
A review of the 257 meta-analyses of the differences between females and males in prevalence and risk, protective factors, and treatment outcomes for mental disorder
Kayrouz, R., Karin, E., Staples, L., Dear, B. F., Nielssen, O. B., & Titov, N. (2025) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-025-06848-7 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
From Hope to Despair, and Back
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“Although the effect size was modest and warrants cautious interpretation, this finding is consistent with a body of literature that suggests that women may experience greater disruptive effects from stress than men (e.g., Davis, Matthews, & Twamley, 1999 ).”
Result
Negative Life Events in Children and Adolescents With Bipolar Disorder
Romero, S., Birmaher, B. B., Axelson, D., Iosif, A., Williamson, D. E., Gill, M. K., Goldstein, B. I., Strober, M. A., Hunt, J., Goldstein, T. R., et al. (2009) · The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.4088/jcp.08m04948gre · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Measurement invariance across gender and age groups, validity and reliability of the Chinese version of the short-form supportive care needs survey questionnaire (SCNS-SF34)
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THE MEANING OF WORK AND HOME
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“Indeed, a recent meta-analysis by Davis, Matthews, and Twamley (1999), found that women reported significantly greater levels of stress in the workplace compared to men.”
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Are many sex/gender differences really power differences?
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Gender, Life Events, and Depression: An Exploratory Study
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Gender Differences in the Rates of Exposure to Stressful Life Events and Sensitivity to Their Depressogenic Effects
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Stress and Sex Differences in Depressive Symptoms Among Older Adults
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Authors: Davis, M. C., Matthews, K. A., & Twamley, E. W.
Affiliations: Arizona State University (US)
University of Pittsburgh (US)
Corresponding author: Davis, Mary C.
ORCID: Davis, Mary C.
Matthews, Karen A.
Twamley, Elizabeth W.
Venue: Annals of Behavioral Medicine
Publisher: Oxford University Press (OUP)
Published: 1999-03
Volume: 21
Issue: 1
Pages: 83-97
ISSN: 0742-5554 (ISSN-L)
0883-6612
1532-4796
DOI: 10.1007/bf02895038
OpenAlex: W2090770638
Cited by: 208
References: 153
Citations by year: 2026: 6 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 15 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 16
FWCI: 3.17
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Annals of Behavioral Medicine (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (HS25767)
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (HL38712)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Health and Well-being Studies
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Roles and Identity Studies
Keywords: sex differences, life events, major life events, depression, anxiety, psychosomatic symptoms, interpersonal relationship stress, occupational stress, adolescents
MeSH terms: Adaptation, Psychological, Adolescent, Adult, Age Factors, Child, Conflict, Psychological, Female, Gender Identity, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Job Satisfaction, Life Change Events, Male, Stereotyping

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Is life more difficult on mars or venus? A meta-analytic review of sex differences in major and minor life events

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