Depression in Children and Adolescents
Abstract
The National Institute of Mental Health has called for translational research linking basic knowledge about vulnerabilities that underlie mood disorders to the development of effective preventive interventions. This paper highlights research about risk factors for depression in children and adolescents and links it to current knowledge about interventions aimed at preventing depression in youth. Basic epidemiologic and clinical research indicates that increased risk for depression is associated with being female; a family history of depression, particularly in a parent; subclinical depressive symptoms; anxiety; stressful life events; neurobiological dysregulation; temperament/personality (e.g., neuroticism); negative cognitions; problems in self-regulation and coping; and interpersonal dysfunction. These vulnerabilities both increase individuals' chances of encountering stress and decrease their ability to deal with the stress once it occurs. Although several existing depression-prevention studies have targeted one or more of these risk factors, the efficacy of these various prevention programs for youth with different combinations of these risk factors needs to be investigated further. Most existing depression-prevention programs in youth have used cognitive-behavioral techniques, with some success. Other depression-prevention strategies have included training in coping, social problem solving, social skills, communication skills, and parenting. A comprehensive prevention program is recommended that includes multiple intervention components, each of which addresses risk and protective factors across different domains and levels of analysis.
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The relations may not generalize to clinical samples of distressed families.
“Families were drawn from a community sample and although sub-clinical symptoms contribute to understanding of the emergence of clinical disorders (Garber, 2006), these relations may not generalize to clinical samples of distressed families.”
From Prospective Relations between Family Conflict and Adolescent Maladjustment: Security in the Family System as a Mediating Process (2015) · cites this paper as Garber, 2006
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(2009)
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“The serious developmental consequences of adolescent depression and the associated treatment challenges once it has developed underscore the need for programs aimed at prevention.(8) One of the most potent and clinically salient risk factors for the development of depression in youth is parental depression.”
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“, inter-parental conflict) or can be detected early by parents (e.g., behavioural inhibition; Garber, 2006; Rapee et al., 2009; van Voorhees et al., 2008; Wood et al., 2003).”
BackgroundEvidence-Based Psychosocial Treatments for Child and Adolescent Depression
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“Female youth may benefit more from interpersonally oriented treatments whereas their male peers may respond better to cognitive behaviorally oriented approaches, however the dearth of data make it premature to draw any conclusions in this regard (Garber, 2006).”
BackgroundCairns, K. E., Yap, M. B. H., Pilkington, P. D., & Jorm, A. F. (2014) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2014.08.006 · Cited by 363 · see citing works
“In line with a population health approach, these messages should be firmly grounded in evidence derived from quality epidemiologic and clinical research, as well as a thorough understanding of the developmental context within which risk is conferred and resilience acquired (Garber, 2006).”
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“Although these selective or indicated approaches have been shown to be more effective than universal programs (Horowitz & Garber, 2006), they require precise knowledge of risk and protective factors and of patterns in the expression of depressive symptoms.”
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“To clarify the maintenance of the initial intervention response over time, we used a procedure outlined by Horowitz and Garber (2006), in which the mean weighted effect size across all studies at the last reported follow-up interval was examined (see Table 1).”
BackgroundMethodCharacteristics, correlates, and outcomes of childhood and adolescent depressive disorders
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“First, there is a need to move beyond identifying separate risk factors, to developing models of causal risk mechanisms (Garber, 2006).”
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“This may be due to differences in men’s and women’s experience of socialization [19].”
BackgroundCummings, E. M., & Valentino, K. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118963418.childpsy115 · Cited by 214 · see citing works
Determinants of the development of post-traumatic stress disorder, in the general population
Perrin, M., Vandeleur, C. L., Castelao, E., Rothen, S., Glaus, J., Vollenweider, P., & Preisig, M. (2014) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-013-0762-3 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
“Stable individual factors including the level of Neuroticism and certain coping styles, which are thought to develop during childhood and adolescence, are likely to increase vulnerability to stressful events [56], but they also predispose to mood or anxiety psychopathology [57], which further increases the vulnerabili…”
BackgroundWood, S. K., & Bhatnagar, S. (2014) · Neurobiology of Stress · doi:10.1016/j.ynstr.2014.11.002 · Cited by 194 · see citing works
“Gender differences in both prevalence and symptomatology of affective disorders are well-established (Garber, 2006).”
BackgroundEnduring and sex-specific effects of adolescent social isolation in rats on adult stress reactivity
Weintraub, A. Y., Singaravelu, J., & Bhatnagar, S. (2010) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2010.04.068 · Cited by 186 · see citing works
Lennarz, H. K., Hollenstein, T., Lichtwarck-Aschoff, A., Kuntsche, E., & Granic, I. (2019) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/0165025418755540 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
“Importantly, studies of adolescents have either investigated changes in trait-like ER strategies across development (Gullone, Hughes, King, & Tonge, 2010; Zimmermann & Iwanski, 2014) or have related specific ER strategies to symptoms of psychopathology (e.g., Garber, 2006).”
BackgroundRapee, R. M. (2013) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12048 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Cummings, E. M., Koss, K. J., & Davies, P. T. (2015) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-014-9926-1 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
“Families were drawn from a community sample and although sub-clinical symptoms contribute to understanding of the emergence of clinical disorders (Garber, 2006), these relations may not generalize to clinical samples of distressed families.”
InfluentialEarly childhood adversity and adolescent depression: the mediating role of continued stress
Hazel, N. A., Hammen, C. L., Brennan, P. A., & Najman, J. M. (2008) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291708002857 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
“Early childhood adversities and recent negative life events have been shown to be robust predictors of major depression in adolescents and adults (Kessler & Magee, 1993 ; Kessler et al. 1997; Mazure, 1998 ; Hammen, 2005 ; Garber, 2006), but little research has examined how the two sources of stress might be associated…”
Lin, H., Tang, T., Yen, J., Ko, C., Huang, C.-F., Liu, S., & Yen, C. (2008) · Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences · doi:10.1111/j.1440-1819.2008.01820.x · Cited by 168 · see citing works
PromisingInterventions, O’Connell, M. E., Boat, T. F., & Warner, K. E. (2009) · Cited by 159 · see citing works
Sanders, W., Zeman, J. L., Poon, J. A., & Miller, R. (2013) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-013-9850-y · Cited by 155 · see citing works
“Thus, investigating risk factors that potentially contribute to setting the stage for later depressive episodes is critical for prevention and early intervention efforts (Garber 2006).”
BackgroundSuicidal behaviors in depressed adolescents: role of perceived relationships in the family
Consoli, A., Peyre, H., Speranza, M., Hassler, C., Falissard, B., Touchette, É., Cohen, D., Moro, M. R., & Révah‐Levy, A. (2013) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health · doi:10.1186/1753-2000-7-8 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
“genetic vulnerability, hormonal changes, gender specific social constraints, differential comorbid psychopathology [45-49].”
BackgroundResultActivities on Facebook Reveal the Depressive State of Users
Park, S., Lee, S. W., Kwak, J.-A., Cha, M., & Jeong, B. (2013) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/jmir.2718 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
“Also, our observations may be related to findings from other research that shows that Facebook friends can play a role and give social support, which is a key protective factor for depression [47,48].”
ResultGotlib, I. H., Goodman, S. H., & Humphreys, K. L. (2020) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721420901590 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
“Finally, interventions designed to target risk factors associated with maternal depression (Garber, 2006) or to enhance high-risk children’s coping and emotion-regulation skills (Compas et al., 2009) offer direct tests of specific risk factors implicated in the intergenerational transmission of…”
BackgroundRumination and Age: Some Things Get Better
Sütterlin, S., Paap, M. C. S., Babic, S., Kübler, A., & Vögele, C. (2012) · Journal of Aging Research · doi:10.1155/2012/267327 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
“To our knowledge, the relationship between ruminative response styles and global life satisfaction has not yet been investigated with respect to the influence of aging.”
BackgroundVulnerability to Depression in Youth: Advances From Affective Neuroscience
Kujawa, A., & Burkhouse, K. L. (2016) · Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2016.09.006 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Yap, M. B. H., Pilkington, P. D., Ryan, S., Kelly, C., & Jorm, A. F. (2013) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2013.11.017 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
“The majority of existing family-based prevention programs for depression and anxiety in young people still fail to specifically target many of the key parental factors that influence the development of these disorders (Creswell and CartwrightHatton, 2007; Garber, 2006; Rapee, 2012; Restifo and Bögels, 2009), although…”
BackgroundInfluentialNalugya, J., Rukundo, G. Z., Ovuga, E., Kiwuwa, S. M., Musisi, S., & Nakimuli‐Mpungu, E. (2016) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health · doi:10.1186/s13034-016-0133-4 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
“Although the reasons for this post-pubertalonset sex difference are not fully understood, recent studies indicate that this difference is probably due to some combination of age-related changes in biological or social circumstances [39, 40].”
BackgroundFamily process and youth internalizing problems: A triadic model of etiology and intervention
Schleider, J. L., & Weisz, J. R. (2016) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s095457941600016x · Cited by 112 · see citing works
“lems in youth, targeting parent-level factors, is to focus on reducing parental anxiety and depression (Garber, 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialA model of communicative perspective-taking for typical and atypical populations of children
Nilsen, E. S., & Fecica, A. M. (2011) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2011.07.001 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
“Social avoidance/withdrawal is a common symptom of childhood depression (APA, 2000; Bell-Dolan, Reaven, & Peterson, 1993; Nilzon & Palmerus, 1998) and depressed youth often experience significant disruption in many aspects of their interpersonal function and communication (Fauber et al., 1987; Garber, 2006; Rudolph, F…”
BackgroundHong, S. S., Flashner, B. M., Chiu, M., Hoeve, E. S. V., Luz, S., & Bhatnagar, S. (2011) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.08.036 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
“Understanding the impact of stress in adolescence is important because of the strong link between stress and affective and anxiety disorders [4, 5, 6].”
BackgroundHamdan-Mansour, A. M., Puskar, K., & Bandak, A. G. (2009) · Issues in Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.1080/01612840802694577 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
“Although this study and the other previous studies supported the positive outcomes of using a cognitive-behavioral model of intervention on depressive symptoms, stress level, and using effective coping strategies, others (Garber, 2006) maintain that CBT intervention success is limited and there is need for comprehensi…”
MethodResultInfluentialKo, C.-H., Yen, J.-Y., Yen, C.-F., Chen, C.-S., & Wang, S.-Y. (2008) · CyberPsychology & Behavior · doi:10.1089/cpb.2007.0095 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
“16 This prevalence may be associated with their emotional intolerance belief.”
Brunet, J., Sabiston, C. M., Chaiton, M., Barnett, T. A., O’Loughlin, E. K., Low, N. C. P., & O’Loughlin, J. L. (2012) · Annals of Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2012.10.006 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
“This allowed for a latent growth model approach to examine the association of both baseline MVPA and changes in MVPA in adolescence, an important period in the development of lifelong behaviors [55], as well as current MVPA.”
MethodTopper, M., Emmelkamp, P. M. G., & Ehring, T. (2010) · Applied and Preventive Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appsy.2012.03.001 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Examining Overgeneral Autobiographical Memory as a Risk Factor for Adolescent Depression
Rawal, A., & Rice, F. J. (2012) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2012.02.025 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Miklowitz, D. J., & Chang, K. (2008) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579408000424 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
“In turn, what we learn from prevention trials may inform our understanding of risk mechanisms that initiate or maintain the disorder (Garber, 2006).”
BackgroundBrausch, A. M., Clapham, R. B., & Littlefield, A. K. (2021) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-021-01525-w · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Depression and cancer: An unexplored and unresolved emergent issue in elderly patients
Spoletini, I., Gianni, W., Repetto, L., Bria, P., Caltagirone, C., Bossù, P., & Spalletta, G. (2008) · Critical Reviews in Oncology/Hematology · doi:10.1016/j.critrevonc.2007.10.005 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
“Neuroticism can be conidered as a subject’s tendency to emotional instability and is well-known risk factor of depression also in general popuation [41], as well as in children and adolescents [42].”
BackgroundSaraceno, L., Munafo, M. R., Heron, J., Craddock, N. J., & van den Bree, M. B. M. (2009) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02571.x · Cited by 78 · see citing works
“Garber [122] describes three models (supported by longitudinal studies) linking stress and depression: the stress exposure model 1104 Luca Saraceno et al.”
BackgroundYoung, J. F., Benas, J. S., Schueler, C. M., Gallop, R., Gillham, J. E., & Mufson, L. H. (2015) · Prevention Science · doi:10.1007/s11121-015-0620-5 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
“The relation between interpersonal vulnerability factors and depression is reciprocal and transactional, with interpersonal difficulties preceding depressive symptoms which further contribute to these interpersonal problems (Garber 2006; Rudolph et al. 2008; Stice et al. 2004).”
InfluentialA systematic review of home-based interventions to prevent and treat postpartum depression
Leis, J. A., Mendelson, T., Tandon, S. D., & Perry, D. F. (2009) · Archives of Women's Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s00737-008-0039-0 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
“This is particularly important given growing consensus that numerous risk and protective factors within multiple ecological systems influence the onset and chronicity of depression and differences in outcomes (Garber 2006).”
BackgroundClayborne, Z. M., Kingsbury, M. K., Sampasa-Kinyaga, H., Sikora, L., Lalande, K. M., & Colman, I. (2020) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-020-01956-z · Cited by 77 · see citing works
“Efforts to both prevent and treat depression and anxiety in adolescents often identify the family unit as an important target for intervention [10, 11], because a number of significant and potentially modifiable risk factors involve parents or the broader home environment.”
BackgroundSpinelli, S., Chefer, S. I., Carson, R. E., Jagoda, E. M., Lang, L., Heilig, M. A., Barr, C. S., Suomi, S. J., Higley, J. D., & Stein, E. A. (2010) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.12.030 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Authoritarian parenting and youth depression: Results from a national study
King, K. A., Vidourek, R. A., & Merianos, A. L. (2016) · Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community · doi:10.1080/10852352.2016.1132870 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
“However, based on an extensive literature review, most existing interventions for depression do not involve parental protective factors (Garber, 2006; Restifo & Bogels, 2009).”
BackgroundInfluentialHoek, W., Marko, M., Fogel, J., Schuurmans, J., Gladstone, T., Bradford, N., Domanico, R., Fagan, B., Bell, C., Reinecke, M. A., et al. (2011) · Translational research · doi:10.1016/j.trsl.2011.07.006 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
“Knowledge of predictors of intervention response (in general and also specific approaches) could improve intervention design greatly.(12,13) This was a phase 2 clinical trial intended to lay the foundation for a randomized clinical trial comparing the optimized CATCH-IT intervention with control arm (treatment as usua…”
Cardamone-Breen, M. C., Jorm, A. F., Lawrence, K. A., Rapee, R. M., Mackinnon, A. J., & Yap, M. B. H. (2018) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/jmir.9499 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
“In practice, the optimal plan for dissemination of preventive parenting programs for adolescent depression and anxiety would likely involve a combination of universal, selective, and indicated approaches [93].”
BackgroundNabwera, H., Shah, V., Neville, R., Sosseh, F., Saidykhan, M., Faal, F., Sonko, B. J., Keita, O., Schmidt, W., & Torondel, B. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0247554 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
“Previous researchers have explained that sex differences are probably due to some combination of agerelated changes in biological and social circumstances [57, 58].”
BackgroundAseltine, R. H., Schilling, E. A., James, A., Glanovsky, J. L., & Jacobs, D. G. (2009) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/chi.0b013e318195bce8 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Ottová-Jordan, V., Smith, O. R. F., Augustine, L., Gobiņa, I., Rathmann, K., Torsheim, T., Mazur, J., Välimaa, R. S., Cavallo, F., Klanšček, H. J., et al. (2015) · European Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckv033 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Hoeve, E. S. V., Kelly, G., Luz, S., Ghanshani, S., & Bhatnagar, S. (2013) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2013.01.073 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“Repeated social stress has been shown to impact the brain norepinephrine system that regulates defensive strategies (Bingham et al., 2011), increasing adolescents’ susceptibility to anxiety and depression (Garber, 2006); (Romeo et al., 2006); (Weintraub et al., 2010).”
BackgroundCole-Lewis, Y., Gipson, P. Y., Opperman, K. J., Arango, A., & King, C. A. (2016) · Journal of Religion and Health · doi:10.1007/s10943-016-0194-y · Cited by 70 · see citing works
“Interpersonal difficulties such as lack of social connectedness and family or peer conflict have been linked to both depression and suicidal thoughts and behaviors among youth (Garber 2006; King and Merchant 2008).”
Van Voorhees, B. W., Paunesku, D., Gollan, J., Kuwabara, S., Reinecke, M., & Basu, A. (2008) · The Annals of Family Medicine · doi:10.1370/afm.887 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Männikkö, N., Ruotsalainen, H., Miettunen, J., Marttila-Tornio, K., & Kääriäinen, M. (2020) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e03415 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“In the present study girls showed significantly higher rates of internalizing symptoms than boys, as previously reported (Garber, 2006; Perrino et al., 2019).”
ResultKornienko, O., & Santos, C. E. (2013) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-013-9979-4 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Davidovich, S., Collishaw, S., Thapar, A. K., Harold, G. T., Thapar, A., & Rice, F. J. (2016) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2016.03.049 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“Parental depression has been identified as a major risk factor for depression in childhood and adolescence with children of depressed parents three to four times more likely to develop depression than offspring of non-depressed parents (Garber, 2006; Rice and Rawal, 2010; Weissman et al., 1997).”
BackgroundToumbourou, J., Williams, I. R., Letcher, P., Sanson, A., & Smart, D. (2011) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1742-9536.2011.00023.x · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Whelan, Y. M., Leibenluft, E., Stringaris, A. K., & Barker, E. D. (2015) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12395 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“As a result, researchhassought to identifyearly familyriskfactors and child characteristics that can predict adolescent depressive symptoms, to enable early identification andmobilize preventative interventionmeasures that focus on early risk factors (e.g. Garber, 2006).”
BackgroundMackay, B., Shochet, I. M., & Orr, J. A. (2017) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-017-3263-5 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“RAP-A is based on integral elements of CBT and Interpersonal Psychotherapy (IPT), both of which have developed a solid evidence base for the treatment of depression in young people (Clarke et al. 2001; Garber 2006; Garber et al. 2009a; Horowitz et al. 2007; Merry et al. 2004; RivetDuval et al. 2011).”
MethodYap, M. B. H., Fowler, M., Reavley, N. J., & Jorm, A. F. (2015) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.05.031 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“Universal programs can be designed to cover the whole range of modifiable factors that all parents can improve in, regardless of current risk (Garber, 2006; Yap et al., 2011).”
BackgroundInfluentialPrevention of depression among Icelandic adolescents: A 12-month follow-up
Arnarson, E. Ö., & Craighead, W. E. (2011) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2010.12.008 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Landback, J., Prochaska, M. T., Ellis, J., Dmochowska, K., Kuwabara, S. A., Gladstone, T. R. G., Larson, J., Stuart, S. P., Gollan, J. K., Bell, C. C., et al. (2009) · Community Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10597-009-9226-3 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Similarly, growing evidence suggests a depressive disorder in adolescents may have many determinants and that programs that address multiple factors may be more effective ( Garber 2006; Cuijpers et al. 2005).”
BackgroundInfluentialCummings, E. M., Cheung, R. Y. M., Koss, K. J., & Davies, P. T. (2014) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-014-9860-2 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“Supporting a focus on depressive symptoms, subclinical as well as clinical levels of depressive symptoms are associated with risk for psychosocial dysfunction (Garber, 2006; Sheeber, Davis, Leve, Hops, & Tildesley, 2007).”
Brown, C. H., Brincks, A., Huang, S., Perrino, T., Cruden, G., Pantin, H., Howe, G., Young, J. F., Beardslee, W., Montag, S., et al. (2018) · Prevention Science · doi:10.1007/s11121-016-0737-1 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“…interventions for youth suggest that depressive symptoms can be reduced and depressive disorders prevented, at least in the short-term (Horowitz & Garber, 2006; Institute of Medicine & National Research Council, 2009; Merry et al., 2011; Munoz et al., 2012; Stice, Shaw, Bohon, Marti, & Rohde,…”
InfluentialSsegonja, R., Nystrand, C., Feldman, I., Sarkadi, A., Langenskiöld, S., & Jonsson, U. (2018) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2018.09.021 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Cummings, E. M., Cheung, R. Y. M., & Davies, P. T. (2013) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-013-0362-1 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“The role of parents’ negative emotional expressiveness in pathways between parental depressive symptoms and children’s risk for adjustment problems has been little examined but the evidence suggests it merits study [5, 13, 14].”
Helgeland, H., Sandvik, L., Mathiesen, K. S., & Kristensen, H. (2010) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2009.10.010 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“Furthermore, previous studies have also reported an association between NLE and anxiety and depression [52].”
BackgroundThe genetics of depression in childhood and adolescence
Rice, F. J. (2009) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-009-0026-9 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Poole, L. A., Knight, T., Toumbourou, J. W., Lubman, D. I., Bertino, M. D., & Lewis, A. J. (2017) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-017-0292-7 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
The relationship between social capital and depression during the transition to adulthood
O’Connor, M., Hawkins, M. T., Toumbourou, J. W., Sanson, A. V., Letcher, P., & Olsson, C. A. (2011) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1742-9536.2011.00004.x · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“Depression over the transition to adulthood is relatively common, with a 1-month prevalence of around 20% (Smart & Sanson, 2005), and a range of biological and social risk factors have been identified (Badcock et al., 2011; van Eekelen et al., 2011; Garber, 2006).”
BackgroundCardamone-Breen, M. C., Jorm, A. F., Lawrence, K. A., Mackinnon, A. J., & Yap, M. B. H. (2017) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.3825 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“The overlap of risk factors and high degree of comorbidity has led to the recommendation of a transdiagnostic preventive approach (Garber, 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialKeijser, R., Olofsdotter, S., Nilsson, K. W., & Åslund, C. (2020) · Mental Health & Prevention · doi:10.1016/j.mhp.2020.200193 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“Negative parenting and parental mental illness have indeed been associated with depression among adolescents (Garber, 2006, Schwartz et al., 2012), and a lack of warmth and availability in the parent – adolescent relationship is suggested to be an important risk factor for adolescent depression…”
Bylund‐Grenklo, T., Kreicbergs, U. C., Valdimarsdóttir, U. A., Nyberg, T., Steineck, G., & Fürst, C. J. (2014) · Psycho-Oncology · doi:10.1002/pon.3515 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“Notably, these factors are interrelated: depression is more common in female youths [47,48]; suicidal ideation, including thoughts of hurting oneself, is a symptom of depression; and having been subjected to physical and sexual abuse T ab le 2.”
BackgroundRisk and Protective Factors for Depressive Symptoms in Urban African American Adolescents
Tandon, S. D., & Solomon, B. S. (2008) · Youth & Society · doi:10.1177/0044118x08327520 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“…risk factors such as social isolation, poverty, and association with antisocial peers; family risk factors such as low levels of parental warmth and family dysfunction; and, individual-level variables such as gender, temperament, and antisocial behavior (Garber, 2006; Lewinsohn et al., 1998).”
BackgroundGladstone, T. R. G., Marko-Holguin, M., Rothberg, P. C., Nidetz, J., Diehl, A., DeFrino, D. T., Harris, M., Ching, E., Eder, M., Canel, J., et al. (2015) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-015-0705-2 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“We expect to conduct tests of moderation in eight domains: (a) adolescent demographic and cultural factors [119-121], (b) adolescent vulnerability factors and adverse events [51], (c) adolescent motivation and attitudes [62], (d) adolescent relationship with the provider, (e) parent and child comorbid psychopathology,…”
Cohen, J. R., Young, J., Gibb, B. E., Hankin, B., & Abela, J. R. (2014) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2014.02.042 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“Additionally, our findings reinforce the need to use specific techniques to target problematic cognitive styles (e.g., see Garber, 2006) and decrease symptoms of anxiety which are activating these specific cognitive styles (e.g., Conrad & Roth, 2007) when treating comorbid emotional distress in…”
Saulsberry, A., Corden, M. E., Taylor-Crawford, K., Crawford, T. J., Johnson, M., Froemel, J., Walls, A., Fogel, J., Marko-Holguin, M., & Voorhees, B. W. V. (2012) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-012-9627-8 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“…adolescents is estimated to be 20 % by age 17 (Kaufman et al. 1996) and has considerable long-term morbidity and mortality (Brent et al. 1993, 1988; Georgiades et al. 2006; Harrington et al. 1990; Lewinsohn et al. 1994; Weissman A. Saulsberry M. E. Corden M. Marko-Holguin B. W. Van Voorhees (&)…”
BackgroundBaddam, S. K. R., Olvera, R. L., Canapari, C. A., Crowley, M. J., & Williamson, D. E. (2019) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs9100108 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Song, L., Fang, P., Jiang, Z., Li, S., Song, X., & Wan, Y. (2021) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.105408 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Perrino, T., Brincks, A. M., Howe, G. W., Brown, C. H., Prado, G. J., & Pantin, H. M. (2016) · Prevention Science · doi:10.1007/s11121-016-0655-2 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“Internalizing disorders such as depression are heterogeneous in their development (see Garber 2006; Pine and Fox 2015).”
Stoltz, S. E. M. J., van Londen, M., Deković, M., de Castro, B. O., Prinzie, P., & Lochman, J. E. (2012) · Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1017/s1352465812000525 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“It has been speculated that gender differences in response to intervention can occur as a consequence of differing therapy preferences of boys and girls (Garber, 2006).”
BackgroundSpinelli, S., Schwandt, M. L., Lindell, S. G., Heilig, M. A., Suomi, S. J., Higley, J. D., Goldman, D. A., & Barr, C. S. (2012) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579411000745 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“Moreover, epidemiological data indicate a higher prevalence of mood and anxiety disorders in women compared to men (Garber, 2006; Sloan & Kornstein, 2003) and gender differences in the contributions of the 5-HTTLPR genotype to depression have also been reported (Brummett et al.”
BackgroundYoung, J. F., Jones, J. D., Gallop, R., Benas, J. S., Schueler, C. M., Garber, J., & Hankin, B. L. (2020) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2020.11.004 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Self-citationKapornai, K., & Vetró, Á. (2008) · Current Opinion in Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/yco.0b013e3282f25b01 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Geng, J., Bao, L., Wang, H., Wang, J., Gao, T., & Lei, L. (2022) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2022.107250 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Gladstone, T. R. G., DeFrino, D. T., Paulson, A., Nidetz, J., Canel, J., Ching, E., Berry, A. D., Cantorna, J., Fogel, J., Eder, M., et al. (2018) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.4278 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Missed opportunities: mental disorder in children of parents with depression
Potter, R., Mars, B., Eyre, O., Legge, S. E., Ford, T. J., Sellers, R., Craddock, N. J., Rice, F. J., Collishaw, S., Thapar, A., et al. (2012) · British Journal of General Practice · doi:10.3399/bjgp12x652355 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Wojniusz, S., Vögele, C., Ropstad, E., Evans, N. P., Robinson, J. E., Sütterlin, S., Erhard, H. W., Solbakk, A., Endestad, T., Olberg, D. E., et al. (2010) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2010.09.010 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Identifying active ingredients in cognitive-behavioral therapies: What if we didn't?Preprint
Lorenzo‐Luaces, L. (2022) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2023.104365 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Wong, P. W. C., Fu, K., Chan, K. Y. K., Chan, W. S. C., Liu, P. M. Y., Law, Y. W., & Yip, P. S. F. (2012) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2012.03.050 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“Epidemiological studies have shown that unipolar depressive disorders often begin in adolescence and affect about 3%- 8% of adolescents in the US (Garber, 2006), and that approximately 21%-28% of adolescents experience an episode of major depression by age 19 (Merry, McDowell, Hetrick, Bir, &…”
BackgroundSmith, Z. R., Breaux, R. P., Green, C. D., & Langberg, J. M. (2019) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054718763722 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Clinical Correlates of Comorbid Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder and Depression in Youth
Canavera, K. E., Ollendick, T. H., Ehrenreich, J. T., & Pincus, D. B. (2010) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-010-0189-y · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Shankman, S. A., Klein, D. N., Torpey, D. C., Olino, T. M., Dyson, M. W., Kim, J., Durbin, C. E., Nelson, B. D., & Tenke, C. E. (2011) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579411000022 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“Such results would suggest that these temperamental traits may be good targets for preventative strategies (Garber, 2006; Karevold, Røysamb, Ystrom, & Mathiesen, 2009).”
Naja, W., Kansoun, A. H., & Haddad, R. S. (2016) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/resprot.4551 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“Notably, social support is a key protective factor against depression [6].”
InfluentialLim, C. S. F., Rice, E. R. W., & Rhoades, H. (2015) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/jora.12200 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“Studies have documented that risk of depression increases with age (Saluja et al., 2004) and female gender (Garber, 2006); therefore, these demographic variables were included in the regression models as covariates to control for systematic differences in depression.”
MethodSchooling and the Mental Health of Children and Adolescents in the United States
Roeser, R. W., & Eccles, J. S. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-9608-3_9 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Brincks, A. M., Perrino, T., Howe, G. W., Pantin, H. M., Prado, G. J., Huang, S., Cruden, G., & Brown, C. H. (2016) · Prevention Science · doi:10.1007/s11121-016-0666-z · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“Meta-analyses of prevention interventions for adolescents have found that youth with higher risks often benefit more than those with lower risks (see Horowitz and Garber 2006; Sandler et al. 2014; Stice et al. 2009).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
- Authors
- Garber, J.
- Affiliations
- Vanderbilt University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Garber, Judy
- ORCID
- Garber, Judy
- Venue
- American Journal of Preventive Medicine
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2006-12
- Volume
- 31
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 104-125
- ISSN
- 0749-3797 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2914498801
- Cited by
- 263
- References
- 203
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 13 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 17 · 2015: 19 · 2014: 18 · 2013: 23 · 2012: 20
- FWCI
- 1.69
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Journal of Preventive Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (K02MH066249, K02 MH 66249, R01MH64735, R01MH057822, R01 MH57822, R01MH064735)
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (P30HD015052, P30 HD-15052)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- depression, children, adolescents, depression prevention, risk factors, mood disorders, family history of depression, anxiety, life events, neuroticism, negative thinking, coping, self-regulation, interpersonal problems, cognitive-behavioral intervention, parenting support, social skills training, social problem solving, protective factors
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Anxiety, Child, Depression, Female, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Male, Personality, Risk Factors, Sex Factors, Stress, Psychological
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