Media use and depression: exposure, household rules, and symptoms among young adolescents in the USA
Open accessAbstract
Objectives To determine the longitudinal and cross-sectional associations between different types of electronic media use (mobile phones, TV, computers, video games, and music) and young adolescents' depressive symptoms, and to explore the potential for household media rules to reduce young people's depression.Methods 126 young adolescents were recruited from the Northeastern USA. Each type of media use was assessed using survey questions, time use diaries, and ecological momentary assessment. The Beck Depression Index for Primary Care was administered at baseline and 1 year later as part of a questionnaire that also included items assessing the presence of household rules about TV and video games.Results Baseline use of mobile phones and TV viewing were associated with higher levels of depression 1 year later controlling for demographic information and baseline depression score. Having household rules about TV at baseline predicted lower levels of depression at follow-up.Conclusions Both TV viewing and mobile phone use may contribute to the development of depressive symptoms. Implementing household rules about the duration and content of TV could help reduce depression in young adolescents.
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All included studies utilised self-report or parent-reported measures of both screen time and mental health outcomes; no studies meeting the inclusion criteria utilised clinician-rated measures of mental health, and only one study utilised EMA to measure screen time.
“First, all included studies utilised self-report or parent-reported measures of both screen time and mental health outcomes; no studies meeting the inclusion criteria utilised clinician-rated measures of mental health, and only one study utilised EMA to measure screen time (Bickham et al., 2015).”
From The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies (2021) · cites this paper as Bickham et al., 2015
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“In the same vein, Bickham and colleagues [20] found associations between PMPU and depression in North American adolescents.”
BackgroundZou, L., Wu, X., Tao, S., Xu, H., Xie, Y., Yang, Y., & Tao, F. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00822 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“A longitudinal study found that greater mobile phone use at baseline was associated with higher depression scores at a 1-year follow up, a finding that could provide new insight for the relationship between mobile phone use and the development of depression symptoms (23).”
BackgroundDoes social media use confer suicide risk? A systematic review of the evidence
Macrynikola, N., Auad, E., Menjivar, J., & Miranda, R. (2021) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2021.100094 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
The association between valence of social media experiences and depressive symptoms
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Social media use and internalizing symptoms during early adolescence: The role of co-rumination
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Problematic Internet uses and depression in adolescents: A meta-analysis
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Increased Screen Time for Children and Youth During the COVID-19 Pandemic
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Ecological Momentary Assessment and Mood Disorders in Children and Adolescents: a Systematic Review
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The “Vicious Circle of addictive Social Media Use and Mental Health” Model
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Anxiety and depression amongst youth as adverse effects of using social media : A Review
Prasad, S., Souabni, S. A., Anugwom, G., Aneni, K., Anand, A., Urhi, A., Obi-Azuike, C., Gibson, T., Khan, A., & Oladunjoye, A. F. (2023) · Annals of Medicine and Surgery · doi:10.1097/ms9.0000000000001066 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Measuring Youth Media Exposure
Rich, M., Bickham, D. S., & Shrier, L. A. (2015) · American Behavioral Scientist · doi:10.1177/0002764215596558 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citationLiu, J., Wang, W., Hu, Q., Wang, P., Lei, L., & Jiang, S. (2021) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2021.08.070 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
How Infant and Toddlers’ Media Use Is Related to Sleeping Habits in Everyday Life in Italy
Bellagamba, F., Presaghi, F., Marco, M. D., D’Abundo, E., Blanchfield, O. A., & Barr, R. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.589664 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Kil, N., Kim, J., Park, J., & Lee, C. (2021) · Leisure Studies · doi:10.1080/02614367.2021.1931414 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
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Lim, P. K., Nordin, A. S. A., Yee, A. H. A., & Tan, S. B. (2020) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-019-00203-0 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“They also display phone checking behaviour to obtain social reassurance (Billieux et al. 2015; Evraire and Dozois 2011), increasing their time spent on smartphone use.”
BackgroundSocial Media and Children: What Is the Paediatrician’s Role?
Hadjipanayis, A., Efstathiou, E., Altorjai, P., Stiris, T., Valiulis, A., Koletzko, B., & Fonseca, H. (2019) · European Journal of Pediatrics · doi:10.1007/s00431-019-03458-w · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“Strategies for implementing household rules and setting limits are associated with reduced levels of depression [6].”
Leung, C. Y., & Torres, R. (2021) · Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2021.02.031 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Kuru, T., & Çelenk, S. (2021) · Anatolian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.5455/apd.136695 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Chzhen, Y., Bruckauf, Z., Toczydlowska, E., Elgar, F. J., Moreno-Maldonado, C., Stevens, G. W. J. M., Sigmundová, D., & Gariépy, G. (2017) · Child Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s12187-017-9489-0 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“incidence of health complaints (Brindova et al. 2015; Bickham et al. 2015; Nuutinen et al. 2014; Tremblay et al. 2011), we are focusing on one extreme only, i.”
Martins, N., Weaver, A. J., & Lynch, T. (2018) · Journal of Communication · doi:10.1093/joc/jqx004 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Digital media and depressive symptoms among Chinese adolescents: A cross-sectional study
Zhang, J., Hu, H., Hennessy, D. A., Zhao, S., & Zhang, Y. (2019) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01554 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“Recent research has indicated that those who replace social interaction with virtual interactions may subsequently show increased social barriers and experience a greater sense of loneliness (Song et al., 2014; Bickham et al., 2015).”
BackgroundFrequency of Text Messaging and Adolescents' Mental Health Symptoms Across 4 Years of High School
George, M. J., Beron, K., Vollet, J. W., Burnell, K., Ehrenreich, S. E., & Underwood, M. K. (2021) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2020.06.012 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Opdal, I. M., Morseth, B., Handegård, B.-H., Lillevoll, K. R., Nilsen, W., Nielsen, C., Furberg, A.-S., Rosenbaum, S., & Rognmo, K. (2020) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2019-035549 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Oh, Y., Kim, Y., & Joung, Y. (2021) · Psychiatry Investigation · doi:10.30773/pi.2021.0133 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Scherr, S. (2018) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-018-0020-7 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Jun, S. (2019) · School Psychology International · doi:10.1177/0143034319830452 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Trends in Screen Time Behaviours in Czech Schoolchildren between 2002 and 2014: HBSC Study.
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Impact of Mobile Phone Screen Exposure on Adolescents’ Cognitive Health
Poujol, M. C., Pinar-Martí, A., Persavento, C., Delgado, A., López-Vicente, M., & Júlvez, J. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph191912070 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“) predicted a higher incidence of depressive and anxiety symptoms [12,13] as well as higher hyperactivity/inattention and conduct problems [14,15].”
BackgroundChildhood and adolescent television viewing and internalising disorders in adulthood
McAnally, H. M., Young, T. R., & Hancox, R. J. (2019) · Preventive Medicine Reports · doi:10.1016/j.pmedr.2019.100890 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Seo, M., & Choi, E. (2017) · School Psychology International · doi:10.1177/0143034317745946 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Law, D. M., Shapka, J. D., & Collie, R. J. (2019) · Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies · doi:10.1002/hbe2.172 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Hugh-Jones, S., Ray, S., Wilding, A., Sutton, M., Humphrey, N., & Munford, L. A. (2025) · SSM - Population Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2025.101845 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“It is notable, though, that of all results considered strong in this category, almost all (12/15) were significant positive associations, with two mixed (Kennewell et al., 2022) and one null result (Bickham et al., 2015).”
INFLUENCIA DE LA ADICCIÓN A INTERNET EN EL BIENESTAR PERSONAL DE LOS ESTUDIANTES UNIVERSITARIOS
Rodríguez, J. M. R., Heredia, N. M., Soto, M. N. C., & Navas-Parejo, M. R. (2021) · African journal of rhetoric · doi:10.21134/haaj.v21i1.559 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Kim, H. H., & Chun, J. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0196824 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Jiang, M., Ding, W., Wang, X., Sun, Z., Li, W., Xie, R., & Nguyen, T. P. (2023) · Journal of Mental Health · doi:10.1080/09638237.2023.2210665 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“A study showed that excessive mobile phone use may contribute to depression among adolescents in the Northeast United States (Bickham et al., 2015).”
BackgroundTexting as a multidimensional behavior: Individual differences and measurement of texting behaviors.
Schroeder, B. L., & Sims, V. K. (2017) · Psychology of Popular Media Culture · doi:10.1037/ppm0000148 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Bickham et al. (2015) Developing depressive symptoms may be associated with increased time using mobile phones.”
BackgroundHaque, M., Rahman, N. A., Majumder, M. A., Rahman, N. I., Haque, S. Z., Zulkifli, Z., Lugova, H., Musa, R., & Alattraqchi, A. G. (2018) · Advances in Human Biology · doi:10.4103/aihb.aihb_28_17 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Ahn, S., Kang, B., & Lee, K. (2017) · Korean Journal of Child Studies · doi:10.5723/kjcs.2017.38.2.191 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Obesogenic behaviours and depressive symptoms in children: a narrative literature review
Dennison, M., Sisson, S. B., & Morris, A. S. (2016) · Obesity Reviews · doi:10.1111/obr.12419 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“One study concurrently used three different methods to measure ST (i) 24-h time-use diaries, (ii) a behavioural recall questionnaire for typical ST use during the school day and weekend and (iii) Ecological Momentary Assessment.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialAssociations of parental attitudes and health behaviors with children’s screen time over four years
Xie, Q., Chen, R., & Zhou, X. (2023) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-023-15212-x · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Other measurements for people’s health behaviors are suggested for future usage to diminish this bias, such as the 24-Hour Diary and Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA) [34, 35].”
BackgroundDrexl, K., Ralisa, V., Amoussou, J. R., Wen, C. K. F., Urben, S., Plessen, K. J., & Glaus, J. (2025) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/65710 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Bhat, I. H., Gupta, S., & Bhat, G. M. (2023) · Information Discovery and Delivery · doi:10.1108/idd-07-2022-0071 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Lebby, S. R., Shyam, S., Ramadas, A., Bohm, A. R., Hill, J. C., Fortuna, K. L., & Zoltick, S. R. (2023) · JMIR Pediatrics and Parenting · doi:10.2196/44920 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Gong, F., Jia, Y., Sun, X., Min, H., Jia, X., Wang, F., Huang, X., Lin, X. C., Li, Z., & Wu, Y. (2023) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-023-05097-w · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Many studies have shown that media use, such as social media, video games, TV and movies was related to the development of public depression [18–22].”
BackgroundForecasting Mental Stress Using Machine Learning Algorithms
Hossain, M., Alazeb, A., Mudawi, N. A., Almakdi, S., Alshehri, M. S., Faruque, M. G. G., & Rahman, W. (2022) · Computers, materials & continua/Computers, materials & continua (Print) · doi:10.32604/cmc.2022.027058 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“1% of American adults had a major depressive episode in 2017, with young people being the most severely affected [3,4].”
BackgroundSaavedra, J. U., Deaso, E. A., Austin, M., Cadavid, L., Kraff, R., & Knowles, E. E. M. (2025) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/66187 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Wang, H., Bragg, F., Guan, Y., Zhong, J., Li, N., Pan, J., & Yu, M. (2023) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2023.1138152 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Technology Use Typologies and Psychological Adjustment During Adolescence
Ohannessian, C. M., & Vannucci, A. (2018) · Youth & Society · doi:10.1177/0044118x18785089 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Bazanova, O. M., & Kovaleva, A. V. (2022) · Human Physiology · doi:10.1134/s0362119722020025 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Xie, Q., Luo, X., Chen, R., & Zhou, X. (2023) · International Journal of Public Health · doi:10.3389/ijph.2022.1605372 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Jun, S.-M. (2015) · Journal of Digital Convergence · doi:10.14400/jdc.2015.13.10.471 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Primack, B. A., Shensa, A. S., Sidani, J. E., Bowman, N. D., Knight, J., Karim, S. A., Bisbey, M. A., Colditz, J. B., Woods, M. S., & Escobar-Viera, C. G. (2018) · National symposium on family issues · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-95540-7_9 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Examining the Associations Between Online Interactions and Momentary Affect in Depressed Adolescents
Moukalled, S., Bickham, D. S., & Rich, M. (2021) · Frontiers in Human Dynamics · doi:10.3389/fhumd.2021.624727 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Self-citationScreen Time and Mental Health in Canadian Youth: An Examination of Nationally Representative Data
Atwal, S., & Browne, D. T. (2022) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941221139995 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“This can be further applied by general health care providers who can educate parents on techniques to implement household rules regarding digital media usage as this has empirically shown to reduce depression (Bickham et al., 2015).”
BackgroundThe Effect of Social Media Use on Depression in Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis
Vesal, M., & Rahimi, C. (2021) · مجله دانشگاه علوم پزشکی اراک · doi:10.32598/jams.24.1.6099.1 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Furthermore, evidence suggests that such measures can be a potential risk factor for depression [6].”
BackgroundSeomun, G., & Noh, W. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph182111061 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Liao, W. (2019) · Otago University Research Archive (University of Otago) · Cited by 5 · see citing works
The Impact of Using Technological Devices on Mental and Physical Health in Adolescents
Doruk, M., Mustafaoğlu, R., & Gül, H. (2023) · European Journal of Therapeutics · doi:10.58600/eurjther.20232902-592.y · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Estimating Young Children’s Exposure to Food and Beverage Marketing on Mobile Devices
Kenney, E. L., Mozaffarian, R. S., Norris, J., Fleming‐Milici, F., & Bleich, S. N. (2024) · Current Developments in Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.cdnut.2024.104505 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Dry eye disease and psychosomatics—benefits of mind-body therapy for dry eye disease
Zhao, C., & Li, X. (2025) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2025.1600258 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Media use degree and depression: A latent profile analysis from Chinese residents
Gong, F., Yi, P., Yu, L., Fan, S., Gao, G., Jin, Y., Zeng, L., Li, Y., & Feei, Z. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1070774 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Previous studies have shown that the use of media, such as social media, video games, TV, and movies, is related to the development of public depression (Kross et al., 2013; Bickham et al., 2015; Liu et al., 2016; Holfeld and Sukhawathanakul, 2017).”
BackgroundProblematic Smartphone Use Is Associated With Current and Previous Major Depressive Disorder
Seong, S. J., Hong, J. P., Hahm, B., Chang, S. M., Kim, B., Lee, D. W., Cho, S., Park, J., Park, J. E., & Jeon, H. J. (2025) · Psychiatry Investigation · doi:10.30773/pi.2025.0011 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“22 High mobile phone use is associated with depressive symptoms one year later among adolescents 53 and young adults.”
Is binge watching among medical students associated with depression and anxiety?
Hamza, M., Halayem, S., Jraidi, I., Myriam, B., Bouden, A., Ahlem, B., & Belhadj, A. (2023) · Insights on the Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.29328/journal.ida.1001035 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Ray, A., Oulamine, A., & Lim, B. C. Y. (2024) · International Journal of Educational Management · doi:10.1108/ijem-06-2024-0328 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Magallón-Neri, E. M., Kirchner, T., Forns, M., Calderón, C., & Planellas, I. (2018) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.03.030 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Fatores de risco associados a sintomas depressivos em adolescentes de um município de pequeno porte
Bernardineli, A. J., Silva, L. L., Araújo, C. R. M. A., & Pedroso, R. B. (2021) · Research Society and Development · doi:10.33448/rsd-v10i4.14315 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
What difference does ‘the digital’ make to children’s experiences of risk?
Livingstone, S. (2015) · International Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1007/s00038-015-0661-3 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Bickham et al. (2015) report that higher use of mobile phones and television viewing is associated, 1 year later, with greater levels of depression among teenagers (even controlling for demographic factors; see also Hemphill et al. 2015).”
Background
- Authors
- Bickham, D. S., Hswen, Y., & Rich, M.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- Boston Children's Hospital (US)
- Corresponding author
- Bickham, David S.
- Venue
- International Journal of Public Health
- Published
- 2015-01-14
- Volume
- 60
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 147-155
- ISSN
- 1661-8556 (ISSN-L)
- 1661-8564
- PMC
- PMC4375733
- OpenAlex
- W2002043486
- Cited by
- 134
- References
- 50
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 4
- FWCI
- 38.60
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- International Journal of Public Health (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R21HD054734)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
- Social Sciences › Education › Child Development and Digital Technology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Keywords
- media use, depression, depressive symptoms, early adolescents, mobile phone use, television viewing, video games, computer use, music listening, screen time, time use, ecological momentary assessment
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adolescent Behavior, Age Factors, Child, Computers, Cross-Sectional Studies, Depression, Family Characteristics, Female, Humans, Male, Mass Media, Surveys and Questionnaires, Sex Factors, Time Factors, United States, Parenting, Risk Assessment, Video Games, Cell Phone, Sedentary Behavior
About these checks
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