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Cited by 469Impact of Technology on AdolescentsMental Health via WritingBody Image and Dysmorphia Studies

Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among U.S. young adults: A nationally-representative study

Open access
Shensa, Ariel, Escobar-Viera, César G., Sidani, Jaime E., Bowman, Nicholas D., Marshal, Michael P., Primack, Brian A.·2017·Social Science & Medicine
DOI 10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.03.061PMC PMC5476225
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Abstract

Rationale Depression is the leading cause of disability worldwide. The suggested association between social media use (SMU) and depression may be explained by the emerging maladaptive use pattern known as problematic social media use (PSMU), characterized by addictive components.Objective We aimed to assess the association between PSMU and depressive symptoms-controlling for overall time and frequency of SMU-among a large sample of U.S. young adults.Methods In October 2014, participants aged 19-32 (N = 1749) were randomly selected from a nationally-representative U.S. probability-based panel and subsequently invited to participate in an online survey. We assessed depressive symptoms using the validated Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS) brief depression scale. We measured PSMU using an adapted version of the Bergen Facebook Addiction Scale to encompass broader SMU. Using logistic regression models, we tested the association between PSMU and depressive symptoms, controlling for time and frequency of SMU as well as a comprehensive set of socio-demographic covariates.Results In the multivariable model, PSMU was significantly associated with a 9% increase in odds of depressive symptoms (AOR [adjusted odds ratio] = 1.09; 95% CI [confidence interval]: 1.05, 1.13; p < 0.001.) Increased frequency of SMU was also significantly associated with increased depressive symptoms, whereas SMU time was not (AOR = 1.01; 95% CI: 1.00, 1.01; p = 0.001 and AOR = 1.00; 95% CI: 0.999-1.001; p = 0.43, respectively).Conclusion PSMU was strongly and independently associated with increased depressive symptoms in this nationally-representative sample of young adults. PSMU largely explained the association between SMU and depressive symptom, suggesting that it may be how we use social media, not how much, that poses a risk. Intervention efforts aimed at reducing depressive symptoms, such as screenings for maladaptive SMU, may be most successful if they address addictive components and frequency-rather than time-of SMU.

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Crossref · 10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.03.061

Cites

55 of 55 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

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Claims the paper makes

0 of 23 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    In the bivariable model, greater frequency of social media use was significantly associated with a small increase in odds of depressive symptoms (OR = 1.01; 95% CI 1.01, 1.01; p < .001).

    “Among covariates, SMU frequency was significantly associated with marginal increases in odds of depressive symptoms in both bi- and multivariable models (OR = 1.01; 95% CI = 1.01, 1.01; p < .001 and AOR = 1.01; 95% CI = 1.00, 1.01; p = .001, respectively)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    In the multivariable ordinal logistic regression model, problematic social media use showed a significant positive association with a 9% higher odds of depressive symptoms (AOR = 1.09; 95% CI 1.05, 1.13; p < .001).

    “In the multivariable model, PSMU was significantly associated with a 9% increase in odds of depressive symptoms (AOR [adjusted odds ratio] = 1.09; 95% CI [confidence interval]: 1.05, 1.13; p < .001.)”
    • Also stated in: § Bivariable and Mutivariable Models · plain
      “PSMU was significantly associated with an 11% increase in odds of depressive symptoms in bivariable and a 9% increase in odds of depressive symptoms in multivariable models (OR = 1.11; 95% CI = 1.08, 1.15; p < .001 and AOR = 1.09; 95% CI = 1.05, 1.13; p < .001, respectively).”
    • Also stated in: § Conclusion · boosted
      “PSMU was strongly and independently associated with increased depressive symptoms in this nationally-representative sample of young adults.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    In the multivariable model, time spent on social media was not significantly associated with depressive symptoms (AOR = 1.00; 95% CI 0.999-1.001; p = .43).

    “Increased frequency of SMU was also significantly associated with increased depressive symptoms, whereas SMU time was not (AOR = 1.01; 95% CI: 1.00, 1.01; p = .001 and AOR = 1.00; 95% CI: 0.999–1.001; p = .43, respectively).”
    • Also stated in: § Bivariable and Mutivariable Models · plain
      “whereas SMU time was only significantly associated with increased depressive symptoms in the bivariable model (see Table 3).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    In the bivariable model, time spent on social media was significantly associated with increased depressive symptoms.

    “whereas SMU time was only significantly associated with increased depressive symptoms in the bivariable model (see Table 3).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    In the bivariable model, problematic social media use showed a significant positive association with an 11% higher odds of depressive symptoms (OR = 1.11; 95% CI 1.08, 1.15; p < .001).

    “PSMU was significantly associated with an 11% increase in odds of depressive symptoms in bivariable and a 9% increase in odds of depressive symptoms in multivariable models (OR = 1.11; 95% CI = 1.08, 1.15; p < .001 and AOR = 1.09; 95% CI = 1.05, 1.13; p < .001, respectively).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 13
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 10
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 2

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In the multivariable model, social media use frequency remained significantly associated with depressive symptoms, while social media use time did not.

    “Moreover, the association between one measure of SMU—frequency—remained significantly associated with depressive symptom in the multivariable model, whereas the other (time) did not.”
    • Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
      “This study found a significant association between frequency of SMU—but not overall time of SMU—and depressive symptoms in the multivariable model.”
    • Also stated in: § Conclusion · plain
      “Moreover, SMU frequency but not SMU time remained significantly and independently associated with depressive symptoms in our multivariable model.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    The follow-up survey had a 59% response rate, with 1796 of 3048 invited panel members completing it.

    “A total of 1796 individuals completed the follow-up survey (59% response rate).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The study's sample was drawn from a probability-based online non-volunteer research panel with a sampling frame covering approximately 97% of U.S. households.

    “This process generated a sampling frame that covers approximately 97% of U.S. households, and a panel consisting of approximately 55,000 members ages 18 and older maintained by Growth from Knowledge (GfK) (GfK KnowledgePanel®, 2013).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites GfK KnowledgePanel®, 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Problematic social media use largely accounted for the link between social media use and depressive symptoms, implying that the manner of use rather than the amount may carry risk.

    “PSMU largely explained the association between SMU and depressive symptom, suggesting that it may be how we use social media, not how much, that poses a risk.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The observed association between PSMU and depressive symptoms reflects PSMU influencing depressive symptoms rather than depressive symptoms influencing PSMU.
    • Rests on an assumption: The set of covariates included in the multivariable model adequately controls for confounding of the PSMU-depressive symptoms association.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The study applied survey weights provided by GfK to adjust for non-response, non-coverage, and under- or over-sampling.

    “We applied study-specific survey weights to our models. These weights were provided from GfK and computed to adjust for non-response, non-coverage, under-, or over-sampling resulting from the sampling design and based upon rigorously tested procedures (Dennis, 2010).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Dennis, 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Missing data affected less than 3% of the sample, so casewise deletion was unlikely to change the results.

    “Because only 47 out of 1796 individuals (< 3%) were missing data, this is unlikely to have changed results. Therefore, we addressed missing data using casewise deletion rather than imputation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The data were self-reported and not externally validated.

    “Also, these data were self-reported and not externally validated.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The study's findings are consistent with prior studies that found positive associations between problematic social media use and depression, and contrary to one that did not.

    “Our findings are consistent with others who have found positive associations between PSMU and depression (Hanprathet et al., 2015; Koc and Gulyagci, 2013) and are contrary to one who recently did not (Andreassen et al., 2016a).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Hanprathet et al., 2015

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Koc and Gulyagci, 2013 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Andreassen et al., 2016a

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The study attempted to increase the validity of its measures by assessing social media use in multiple ways (time and frequency).

    “Nonetheless, we attempted to increase the validity of our measures by assessing SMU in multiple ways (i.e., both time and frequency).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The original scales of several key variables, including social media use frequency and depressive symptoms, required data recoding for analysis due to lack of standardization across scale items or violation of analytic model assumptions.

    “An additional limitation of this study is that the original scales of several key variables, including SMU frequency and depressive symptoms, required data recoding for analysis either due to lack of standardization across scale items or violation of analytic model assumptions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The depression symptom categories were based on clinical cut-points, but because these cut-points were established using the 8-item form rather than the 4-item short form, interpretations are made with caution.

    “Because these cut-points were established using the 8-item form, not the 4-item short form used in this study, we use these interpretations with caution and apply the more conservative label of “moderate” to encompass both moderate and severe scores.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites American Psychiatric Association, 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Because responses were anonymous and participants were informed of a Certification of Confidentiality from the National Institutes of Health, it is unlikely that participants were untruthful.

    “However, because responses were anonymous and all participants were informed that the study received a Certification of Confidentiality from the National Institutes of Health, it would be unlikely for participants to be untruthful.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Study design and conductnone given

    A limitation of survey research is the lag between data collection and dissemination of results.

    “Finally, a limitation of survey research is the lag between data collection and dissemination of results.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Self-reported social media use can under- or overestimate actual use.

    “For example, self-reported SMU can under- or overestimate actual use.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The adapted PSMU scale had a one-factor structure (eigenvalue = 3.90, explaining 65% of variance) with factor loadings from 0.76 to 0.84 and high internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.89).

    “PCA revealed a 1-factor solution, with an eigenvalue = 3.90 explaining 65% of the variance. Factor loadings ranged from 0.76 to 0.84 (Table 1). Internal consistency was high, with Cronbach’s α = 0.89.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Use of social media is associated with depressive symptoms and a decline in well-being among both adolescents and adults.

    “Other research has extended this by suggesting that use of social media is associated with depressive symptoms and a decline in well-being among both adolescents (Pantic et al., 2012) and adults (Kross et al., 2013; Lin et al., 2016; McDougall et al., 2016; Shensa et al., 2016).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Pantic et al., 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Kross et al., 2013 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Lin et al., 2016 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Prior studies on PSMU and depression used small convenience samples, assessed a single platform such as Facebook, or focused on older populations.

    “Prior studies were conducted using small convenience samples, assessing the use of a single platform, such as Facebook, or focusing on older populations (Andreassen et al., 2016a; Hanprathet et al., 2015; Koc and Gulyagci, 2013).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Andreassen et al., 2016a

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Hanprathet et al., 2015

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Koc and Gulyagci, 2013 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Participants self-reported depressive symptoms, and some individuals underreport stigmatizing conditions such as this.

    “Similarly, participants self-reported depressive symptoms, and some individuals underreport stigmatizing conditions such as this.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    The data showed significant departures from normality and homogeneity of variance, making linear regression not viable.

    “Visual inspection of our residual plots and the result from the Shapiro-Wilk test indicated significant and substantial departure from normality among the residuals of the dependent variable (p < .001). Additionally, scatter plots and White’s test for homogeneity of variance demonstrated significant departures from homogeneity of variance (p < .001).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Media multitasking has been associated with negative health outcomes in the past.

    “Media multitasking has been associated with negative health outcomes in the past (Becker et al., 2013; Rosen et al., 2013).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Becker et al., 2013 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Rosen et al., 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

20 of 20

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Participants' self-reported estimates of time spent on social media and frequency of social media use are accurate.

    “We first asked participants to estimate total time per day spent on social media for personal use; the item explicitly instructed participants not to include work-related use in their estimates.”
    “Then, a set of items prompted participants to indicate how frequently they visited each of the following eleven social media platforms: Facebook, Twitter, Google+, YouTube, LinkedIn, Instagram, Pinterest, Tumblr, Vine, Snapchat, and Reddit.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The observed association between PSMU and depressive symptoms reflects PSMU influencing depressive symptoms rather than depressive symptoms influencing PSMU.

    “PSMU largely explained the association between SMU and depressive symptom, suggesting that it may be how we use social media, not how much, that poses a risk.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The set of covariates included in the multivariable model adequately controls for confounding of the PSMU-depressive symptoms association.

    “controlling for time and frequency of SMU as well as a comprehensive set of socio-demographic covariates.”
3 of 3

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Addiction to Facebook is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and insomnia.

    “It has been shown that addiction to Facebook is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and insomnia (Bányai et al., 2017; Koc & Gulyagci, 2013; Shensa et al., 2017; Van Rooij, Ferguson, Van de Mheen, & Schoenmakers, 2017) and negatively associated with subjective well-being, subjective vigor, and life satisfaction (Błachnio, Przepiorka, & Pantic, 2016; Hawi & Samaha, 2017; Uysal, Satici,”

    From Social media addiction: Its impact, mediation, and intervention (2019) · cites this paper as Shensa et al., 2017

    The Discussion reports a positive association between problematic social media use and depressive symptoms; the paper also recounts earlier findings linking Facebook addiction to depression. Its Methods specify that this study measured social media use broadly, not Facebook addiction specifically, and the cited passages do not establish associations with anxiety or insomnia. No page numbers are available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.89)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Previously found negative associations between SMU intensity and mental health were potentially confounded by unobserved SMU problems.

    “Hence, previously found negative associations between SMU intensity and mental health were potentially confounded by unobserved SMU problems.”

    From Social media use intensity, social media use problems, and mental health among adolescents: Investigating directionality and mediating processes (2021) · cites this paper as Shensa et al., 2017

    The Discussion says earlier associations between overall social media use and depression did not account for problematic social media use (PSMU), and that the association with time spent using social media was not independent of PSMU. But the association with use frequency remained significant after accounting for PSMU. The claim therefore extends the possible confounding beyond time spent using social media and from depressive symptoms to mental health generally. (LLM, conf=0.84)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Two included studies had a mainly adult sample.

    “while two studies had a mainly adult sample (37, 42).”

    From Problematic social networking site use and comorbid psychiatric disorders: a systematic review of recent large-scale studies (2018) · cites this paper as [42]

  • Only two included studies used a nationally representative population.

    “Only two studies used a nationally representative population [i.e., (13, 42)].”

    From Problematic social networking site use and comorbid psychiatric disorders: a systematic review of recent large-scale studies (2018) · cites this paper as [42]

  • Six of seven studies reported a significant positive association between PSNSU and depression, and one reported an indirect positive association.

    “A significant and positive association between PSNSU and depression was reported in six studies [i.e., (37, 39, 41–43, 45)]. One study [i.e., (47)] reported an indirect positive association between PSNSU and depression.”

    From Problematic social networking site use and comorbid psychiatric disorders: a systematic review of recent large-scale studies (2018) · cites this paper as [42]

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Authors
Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Sidani, J. E., Bowman, N. D., Marshal, M. P., & Primack, B. A.
Affiliations
  • University of Pittsburgh (US)
  • West Virginia University (US)
Corresponding author
Shensa, Ariel
ORCID
Venue
Social Science & Medicine
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2017-06
Volume
182
Pages
150-157
ISSN
0277-9536 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.03.061
PMC
PMC5476225
OpenAlex
W2605927993
Cited by
469
References
54
Citations by year
2026: 51 · 2025: 55 · 2024: 47 · 2023: 60 · 2022: 64 · 2021: 66 · 2020: 56 · 2019: 39 · 2018: 24 · 2017: 6 · 2015: 1
FWCI
87.28
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations
  • Social Science & Medicine (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
  • RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
Funders
National Cancer Institute (R01CA140150)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Mental Health via Writing
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Body Image and Dysmorphia Studies
Keywords
social media addiction, depressive symptoms, young adults, Bergen Facebook Addiction Scale, mental health screening
MeSH terms
Adult, Depression, Female, Humans, Male, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Psychometrics, Surveys and Questionnaires, Risk Factors, United States, Odds Ratio, Behavior, Addictive, Social Media

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