A review of the evidence for training effectiveness with virtual reality technology
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VR enables activation of visual, auditory, and kinesthetic encoding modes, enhancing the retention of psychological techniques.
“VR also enables activation of visual, auditory, and kinesthetic encoding modes, enhancing the retention of psychological techniques (21).”
From A virtual reality-based self-guided training on identification of negative automatic thoughts in healthy adults: a mixed-methods feasibility study (2024) · cites this paper as [21]
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“…see refuting evidence from Chen et al., 2020), gross psychomotor (e.g., visual scanning and observational skills), and affective (e.g., building resilience to performance under stress; emergency response procedures) skills (Abich et al., 2021; Davids et al., 2021; Jensen & Konradsen, 2018).”
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“…al. (2020) y Kukulska-Hulme et al. (2021)–, la realidad es que faltan estudios e investigaciones que no se centren fundamentalmente en problemáticas asociadas al hardware que se desee utilizar y a los requerimientos del software para la producción de sus objetos de aprendizaje (Abich et al., 2021).”
BackgroundEffectiveness of virtual reality in elementary school: A meta-analysis of controlled studies
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“It is noteworthy that Abich et al. (2021) include studies that fail to meet our inclusion criteria.”
BackgroundResultA virtual reality platform to simulate orientation and mobility training for the visually impaired
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“Therefore, there is a need to create a 3D simulated environment through interactive software and hardware to achieve the goal (Abich et al., 2021).”
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“Abich et al. (2021) reviewed empirical studies on the training effectiveness with VR technology and found that the trainees from different industries including aviation, assembly, education, manufacturing, military, medical, and safety enhanced their psychomotor performance, knowledge acquisition,…”
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“training literature, Khan et al. [3] found that though VR training is better than no training, it is not better than conventional training, whereas Mekbib et al. [4] in a meta-analysis of upper limb rehabilitation literature found that VR was better than conventional therapy.”
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“The result is consistent with the previous research that indicated that virtual training is more effective for procedural learning (Abich et al., 2021; Hoareau et al., 2017; Renganayagalu et al., 2021).”
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“, [4,38]) might be due to not only the gender factor, which shapes spatial orientation and emotional reactivity when processing visual information [24,25,54], but also due to the individual differences in the natural environment attractiveness (EID).”
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“These new simulation technologies bridge the gap between prior and unique knowledge of physiotherapy students, learn new clinical operations, and help them develop their scientific understanding using knowledge in a quasirealistic environment [21].”
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“However, the instructional strategies and how they are implemented in VR training are rarely discussed [1].”
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Exploring the critical success factors of virtual reality adoption in the hotel industry
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“Usually, one or a few of these criteria are chosen for the VR training effectiveness assessment (Abich et al. 2021).”
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“For example, intelligent tutoring systems (ITS) establish learning objectives (for example, shooting a ball at a basket) while allowing multiple ways for users to enhance their performance, such as multimodal feedback, actuation for correcting motor tasks, and adjusting task difculty levels [28,…”
InfluentialTEAMs go VR—validating the TEAM in a virtual reality (VR) medical team training
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“For example, it enables extensive and iterative training, creating more opportunities for skill development over longer durations [26].”
BackgroundA prospective vision of the evolution of immersive technologies: Towards a definition of metaverse
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“Our results can also offer similar benefits for other emerging applications of kinematic analyses in VR, including monitoring learners’ progress during VR-based motor skills training [1, 77, 90] and identifying usability issues during reaching interactions with VR displays [23, 54].”
Adaptive training instructional interventions: A meta-analysis
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“However, more empirical research is needed to determine whether learning in XR is as effective as learning on traditional platforms (e.g., Abich et al., 2021; Kaplan et al., 2021; Marraffino et al., 2022), as well as whether adaptive instructional interventions differ in their effectiveness in…”
Virtual Reality Training as Enhanced Experiential Learning
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“Unlike the motor skill field which often studies one skill in isolation, manufacturing jobs require a wide-range of skills [26], a combination of fine and gross motor skills [5], and a discernment of the goal and situation to understand how to employ different skills to finish the job at hand.”
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Mixed Reality Training in Electrical Equipment Operating Procedures
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Training to improve emergency management decision-making: what the research literature tells us
McLennan, J., Hayes, P., Bearman, C., Penney, G., Butler, P. C., & Flin, R. H. (2024) · Australian Journal of Emergency Management · doi:10.47389/39.4.33 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Al-Hamad, A., & Gilányi, A. (2025) · Results in Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.rineng.2025.105135 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Cordeiro, A., Ferreira, Y. T. S., Leite, R., Almeida, L., Catapan, M., Siqueira, A., Silva, T., & Winkler, I. (2025) · Frontiers in Virtual Reality · doi:10.3389/frvir.2025.1726058 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
You, J., Wu, Z., Wei, W., Li, N., & Yang, Y. (2024) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app14146369 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“VR training has significant advantages in improving operator skills and proficiency [24].”
Edge-Cloud-Based Wearable Computing for Automation Empowered Virtual Rehabilitation
Lv, Z., & Singh, A. K. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Automation Science and Engineering · doi:10.1109/tase.2023.3289908 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“A detailed study of the efficacy of virtual reality (VR) technology was undertaken by Abich et al. [26] and included a review of the evidence of the training effect of VR technology.”
BackgroundDoozandeh, P., & Hedayati, S. (2022) · IISE Transactions on Occupational Ergonomics and Human Factors · doi:10.1080/24725838.2022.2099483 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“…our initial predictions, it is not unprecedented, because the benefit of animation over static training materials for electronic and mechanical systems has been a controversial issue (e.g., Abich et al., 2021; Bailey et al., 2017; Johnson & Rouse, 1982; Spangenberg, 1973; Swezey et al., 1991).”
BackgroundAssessing evidence-based training in a collaborative virtual reality flight simulator
Cross, J. I., & Ryley, T. J. (2024) · The Aeronautical Journal · doi:10.1017/aer.2024.113 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Lehikko, A., Nykänen, M., & Ruokamo, H. (2025) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-025-01196-z · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“…embodied interactivity with and within the environment has been discussed as one of the main learning advantages of IVR, alongside its capability for immersion (Abich et al. 2021; Castro-Alonso et al. 2024; Johnson-Glenberg 2019; Makransky and Petersen 2021; Skulmowski and Rey 2018; Roussou 2004).”
Using virtual environments to facilitate refugee integration in third countries
Kirya, M., Debattista, K., & Chalmers, A. G. (2022) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-022-00659-x · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Influence of science education on mental health of adolescents based on virtual reality
Wu, B., Zheng, C., & Huang, B. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.895196 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“VR technology has three characteristics: immersion, interaction, and imagination (Abich et al., 2021; Reer et al., 2022).”
BackgroundA review of the application of virtual and augmented reality in physical and occupational therapy
Dwarkadas, A. L., Talasila, V., Challa, R. K., & Srinivasa, K. G. (2024) · Software Practice and Experience · doi:10.1002/spe.3323 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“91,92 The display text size in VR and AR applications for POT should be large.”
BackgroundMedical training in virtual reality: a gamification approach
Turchet, L., Gentilini, F., Malandra, S., Veccia, A., Antonelli, A., & Scoffone, C. M. (2025) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-025-01159-4 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Notably, in designing the system we carefully considered the twelve tips to harness the power of gamification in medical education reported in (Singhal et al. 2019), as well as the recommendations for designing VR training systems reported in (Abich et al. 2021).”
Tamim, Z. H., Akter, B., Rahman, M. S., Kaiser, M. S., Rahman, M. A., Ogliari, E., & Tanasiev, V. (2025) · Sustainable Cities and Society Advances · doi:10.1016/j.scsadv.2025.100007 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Gaining Impact with Mixed Reality in Industry – A Sustainable Approach
Holly, F., Zigart, T., Maurer, M., Wolfartsberger, J., Brunnhofer, M., Sorko, S. R., Moser, T., & Schlager, A. (2022) · International Conference on Computer Technology Applications (ICCTA) · doi:10.1145/3543712.3543729 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“[1] investigated works published between 1998 and 2019.”
BackgroundAddressing Emotions and Beliefs for Vulnerable Jobseekers with Virtual Reality
McGivney, E., Forshaw, T., Medeiros, R., Mingyue, S., & Grotzer, T. A. (2023) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-023-11923-1 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“VR has been shown to increase learners’ self-efficacy in education and training programs (Abich et al., 2021; Hamilton et al., 2021).”
InfluentialClark, L. D., Iskandarani, M. E., & Riggs, S. L. (2024) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-023-00930-9 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“…motor rehabilitation (e.g., Park et al. 2021; Salisbury et al. 2020), monitoring learners’ progress during VR-based motor skills training (e.g., Abich et al. 2021; Radhakrishnan et al. 2021), and detecting usability issues during reaching interactions with VR displays (Clark & Riggs 2019;…”
InfluentialSarkar, D., Kumar, A., & Arora, A. (2025) · Journal of Bionic Engineering · doi:10.1007/s42235-024-00642-z · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Al-Hamad, A., Wedyan, M., & Gilányi, A. (2025) · Cognition Technology & Work · doi:10.1007/s10111-025-00807-8 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Ultimately, the study provides new initiatives to design immersive VR training systems that improve safety knowledge skills and abilities (KSAs) (Abich et al. 2021).”
Jochmann, E., Jochmann, T., Weber, M., Weigel, K., & Klingner, C. M. (2025) · Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1186/s12984-025-01677-x · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Assessing Usability of Untethered Head-Mounted Displays for Medical Education
Bailey, S. K. T., Lewis, J. E., Ciccone, B. A., Friedland, R. L., & Reiner, C. C. (2022) · Simulation in Healthcare The Journal of the Society for Simulation in Healthcare · doi:10.1097/sih.0000000000000637 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Recent reviews on the effectiveness of VR training indicated that VR is particularly useful for training psychomotor performance (ie, procedural skills), spatial navigation, and conceptual knowledge.(10) Specifically in health professions, VR training was more effective than other digital instruction for postintervent…”
BackgroundClay, C. J., Budde, J. R., Hoang, A. Q., & Gushchyan, A. (2024) · Frontiers in Virtual Reality · doi:10.3389/frvir.2024.1402093 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Speiser, K., & Teizer, J. (2024) · Journal of Information Technology in Construction · doi:10.36680/j.itcon.2024.043 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“The benefits of VR training are evident in psychomotor performance, knowledge acquisition, and spatial ability improvement (Abich et al., 2021).”
The efficacy of adaptive training in immersive virtual reality for a fine motor skill task
Lui, L. F., Radhakrishnan, U., Chinello, F., & Koumaditis, K. (2025) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-024-01083-z · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Researching Interactional and Volumetric Scenographies – Immersive Qualitative Digital Research
Davidsen, J., McIlvenny, P., & Ryberg, T. (2023) · Postdigital science and education · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-35411-3_7 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Rodríguez-Garcia, B., Ramírez‐Sanz, J. M., Miguel-Alonso, I., & Bustillo, A. (2024) · Electronics · doi:10.3390/electronics13101972 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Hsu, R., McCabe, C., Ellison, C., Howells, M., & Loetscher, T. (2024) · Multimodal Technologies and Interaction · doi:10.3390/mti8110100 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Wijkmark, C. H., Heldal, I., & Metallinou, M.-M. (2019) · PRESENCE Virtual and Augmented Reality · doi:10.1162/pres_a_00346 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“In numerous studies, a common assumption is that experiencing a high degree of presence in a VS can result in improved performance (e.g., Abich, Parker, Murphy, & Eudy, 2021; Monteiro, Melo, Valente, Vasconcelos-Raposo, & Bessa, 2020; Schroeder et al., 2001).”
BackgroundVirtual Reality is Better Than Desktop for Training a Spatial Knowledge Task, but Not for Everyone
Marraffino, M. D., Johnson, C. I., & Garibaldi, A. E. (2022) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-05939-1_14 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Authoring instructional flow in iVR learning units to promote outcome-oriented learning
Ipsita, A., Patel, M., Unmesh, A., & Karthik Ramani, A. (2024) · Computers & Education X Reality · doi:10.1016/j.cexr.2024.100074 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Implementing Virtual Reality for Fire Evacuation Preparedness at Schools
Keya, R. T., Heldal, I., Patel, D., Murano, P., & Wijkmark, C. H. (2025) · Computers · doi:10.3390/computers14070286 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Different training methods and tools require tailored strategies to achieve desired learning outcomes effectively [13,14].”
Cordeiro, A. M., Santos, F., & Winkler, I. (2023) · doi:10.5151/siintec2023-306469 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Obermair, F., Althaler, J., Wolfartsberger, J., Niedermayr, D., & Feichtenschlager, H.-P. (2024) · Procedia CIRP · doi:10.1016/j.procir.2024.10.106 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
The Impact of Virtual Reality on Technical Training: A Case Study in Live-Line Maintenance
Górski, F., Gapsa, J., Grajewski, D., Zawadzki, P., Maik, M., Sobociński, P., Starzyński, P., Wojciechowski, R., & Walczak, K. (2025) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2025.3566937 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Calisanie, N. N. P., Sansuwito, T. B., Dioso, R. I., & Lindayani, L. (2025) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/74108 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Virtual reality (VR) has been developed as a novel tool for training disaster preparedness through realistic immersive simulations [28,29].”
Sun, Y., Yang, Q. Y., Chen, J., Li, H. Z., Wang, X., & Xu, D. (2025) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-025-01143-y · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“With high-quality stereopsis and immersion, the VR system improves knowl - edge transfer efficiency and demonstrates that it is superior to traditional maintenance training tools (Abich et al. 2021; Li et al. 2018 , 2012 ; Ganier et al. 2014 ).”
Otsuki, M., & Okuma, T. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-00194-0 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Zhong, Y., Li, C., Jiang, J., Fryer, L. K., & Shum, A. (2025) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.1177/07356331251396405 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Design and evaluation of a problem-based learning VR module for apparel fit correction training
Galada, A., & Baytar, F. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0311587 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Pulley, J., Claflin, K., & Thompson, A. (2025) · Journal of Agricultural Education · doi:10.5032/jae.v66i3.3195 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Sound of the Police—Virtual Reality Training for Police Communication for High-Stress Operations
Murtinger, M., Uhl, J. C., Atzmüller, L. M., Regal, G., & Roither, M. (2024) · Multimodal Technologies and Interaction · doi:10.3390/mti8060046 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Virtual and augmented technologies for training are becoming increasingly popular and are used in various domains [9,10].”
BackgroundKubicki, B., Janowski, A., & Inglot, A. (2025) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app15031330 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“VR technology allows students to interact with objects outside their normal daily experience, which can increase student engagement and motivation to learn [14].”
Training First Responders Through VR-Based Situated Digital Twins
Partarakis, N., Evdaimon, T., Katsantonis, M. N., & Zabulis, X. (2025) · Computers · doi:10.3390/computers14070274 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Stark, B. C. (2025) · Perspectives of the ASHA Special Interest Groups · doi:10.1044/2025_persp-25-00035 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Menekşeoğlu, A. K., Aşık, H. K., Şahbaz, T., & İş, E. E. (2025) · Irish Journal of Medical Science (1971 -) · doi:10.1007/s11845-025-04158-1 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
A User-Centered Study on Virtual Reality Training Systems’ Design Features
Buonocore, S., Guerra, A., Amicis, R. D., Benincasa, M., Minopoli, V., & Gironimo, G. D. (2024) · Lecture notes in mechanical engineering · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-58094-9_59 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Sokołowska, B. (2021) · Symmetry · doi:10.3390/sym13101810 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Menchafou, Y., Aaboud, M., & Chekour, M. (2023) · International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies (iJIM) · doi:10.3991/ijim.v17i16.39267 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Thermal Sensation with Microheater for Virtual Reality Applications: Preliminary Results
Bakha, Y., Merah, S. M., Benbelkacem, S., Zenati-Henda, N., & Masmoudi, M. (2023) · International Conference on Networking and Advanced Systems (ICNAS) · doi:10.1109/icnas59892.2023.10330469 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Malegiannaki, A.-C., Garefalaki, E., Πέλλας, Ν., & Kosmidis, M. H. (2024) · Multimodal Technologies and Interaction · doi:10.3390/mti8010003 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Embodied Hybrid Bodystorming to Design an XR Suture Training Experience
Segura, E. M., Vega-Cebrián, J. M., Maldonado, A. A., Cristóbal, L., & Bellucci, A. (2024) · International Conference on Tangible, Embedded, and Embodied Interaction (TEI) · doi:10.1145/3623509.3633362 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“While the literature on Virtual Reality (VR) simulations with haptic feedback devices is abundant [1, 2], the use of XR technology for surgical training is underexplored, possibly due to the very recent availability of more advanced, ergonomic and affordable headsets and software development kits…”
BackgroundInfluential
- Authors
- Abich, J., Parker, J., Murphy, J. S., & Eudy, M.
- Corresponding author
- Abich, Julian
- ORCID
- Abich, Julian
- Venue
- Virtual Reality
- Published
- 2021-01-08
- Volume
- 25
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 919-933
- ISSN
- 1359-4338 (ISSN-L)
- 1434-9957
- OpenAlex
- W3119286888
- Cited by
- 253
- References
- 41
- Citations by year
- 2026: 38 · 2025: 80 · 2024: 60 · 2023: 39 · 2022: 30 · 2021: 5 · 2019: 1
- FWCI
- 20.55
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Virtual Reality (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Virtual Reality Applications and Impacts
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Control and Systems Engineering › Simulation and Modeling Applications
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Augmented Reality Applications
- Keywords
- virtual reality training, training effectiveness, knowledge, skills and abilities, psychomotor performance, knowledge acquisition, spatial ability, training outcomes
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