Learning science in immersive virtual reality.
Open accessAbstract
The goals of the study were (a) to compare the instructional effectiveness of immersive virtual reality (VR) versus a desktop slideshow as media for teaching scientific knowledge, and (b) to examine the efficacy of adding a generative learning strategy to a VR lesson. In Experiment 1, college students viewed a biology lesson about how the human body works either in immersive VR or via a self-directed PowerPoint slideshow on a desktop computer. Based on interest theory, it was predicted that students who learned in immersive VR would report more positive ratings of interest and motivation and would score higher on a posttest covering material in the lesson. In contrast, based on the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, it was predicted that students who learned with a well-designed slideshow would score higher on a posttest, although they might not report higher levels of interest and motivation. The results showed that students who viewed the slideshow performed significantly better on the posttest than the VR group, but reported lower motivation, interest, and engagement ratings. In Experiment 2, students either viewed a segmented VR lesson and produced a written summary after each segment or viewed the original, continuous VR lesson as in Experiment 1. Students who summarized the lesson after each segment performed significantly better on the posttest and the groups did not differ on reported interest, engagement, and motivation. These results support the cognitive theory of multimedia learning and demonstrate the value of generative learning strategies in immersive VR environments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved)
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Several studies have argued that VR simulations result in a significant increase in self-efficacy by allowing students to actively interact with the virtual environment.
“Several studies have argued that VR simulations result in a signi fi cant increase in self-e ffi cacy by allowing students to actively interact with the virtual environment (Makransky et al., 2016; Parong & Mayer, 2018; Thisgaard & Makransky, 2017; Thompson & Dass, 2000).”
From Investigating the effect of pre-training when learning through immersive virtual reality and video: A media and methods experiment (2019) · cites this paper as Parong & Mayer, 2018
Previous literature has found that high-immersion media can result in more extraneous cognitive load processing, which results in less learning.
“Previous literature has found that high-immersion media can result in more extraneous cognitive load processing, which results in less learning (e.g. Makransky et al., 2019b; Parong & Mayer, 2018).”
From Investigating the effect of pre-training when learning through immersive virtual reality and video: A media and methods experiment (2019) · cites this paper as Parong & Mayer, 2018
In a second experiment, Parong and Mayer (2018) found that giving learners time to reflect between segments in a VR simulation increased scores on both factual (d = 1.14) and conceptual (d = 0.66) questions.
“In a second experiment, they compared two groups using a VR simulation and found that, if given time to re fl ect between segments, scores increased on both factual ( d =1.14) and conceptual questions ( d =0.66).”
From Investigating the effect of pre-training when learning through immersive virtual reality and video: A media and methods experiment (2019) · cites this paper as Parong and Mayer (2018)
Generative learning strategies such as summarizing can aid learning and limit cognitive load while maintaining the motivational value of immersive VR learning environments.
“The authors argue that generative learning strategies such as summarizing can aid learning and limit cognitive load, while maintaining the motivational value of immersive VR learning environments.”
From Investigating the effect of pre-training when learning through immersive virtual reality and video: A media and methods experiment (2019) · cites this paper as Parong and Mayer (2018)
Parong and Mayer (2018) found that a slideshow presentation group performed better than a VR simulation group on factual questions (d = 1.12), with no difference between the groups on conceptual questions.
“Parong and Mayer (2018) compared a VR simulation to a slideshow presentation, and found that the slideshow group performed better on factual questions ( d =1.12), but found no di ff erence on conceptual questions.”
From Investigating the effect of pre-training when learning through immersive virtual reality and video: A media and methods experiment (2019) · cites this paper as Parong and Mayer (2018)
The empirical articles that have investigated affective outcomes of educational interventions in IVR compared to less immersive media have generally been consistent in finding higher levels of presence and interest.
“The empirical articles that have investigated affective outcomes of educational interventions in IVR compared to less immersive media have generally been consistent in finding higher levels of presence (e.g., Buttussi and Chittaro 2018;Makransky and Lilleholt 2018;Makransky et al. 2019b;Parong and Mayer 2018), and interest (Makransky et al. 2020c;Parong and Mayer 2018).”
From The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL): a Theoretical Research-Based Model of Learning in Immersive Virtual Reality (2021) · cites this paper as Parong and Mayer 2018
Initial research suggests that the generative learning strategy of summarization improves factual and conceptual knowledge when applied within an IVR science simulation.
“Initial research suggests that the generative learning strategy of summarization improves factual and conceptual knowledge when applied within an IVR science simulation (Parong and Mayer 2018).”
From The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL): a Theoretical Research-Based Model of Learning in Immersive Virtual Reality (2021) · cites this paper as Parong and Mayer 2018
Parong and Mayer (2018) found that an immersive VR lesson was less effective than a PowerPoint lesson for acquiring factual knowledge, but found no significant difference in conceptual knowledge acquisition.
“Parong and Mayer (2018) found that an immersive VR lesson was less effective than a PowerPoint lesson for acquiring factual knowledge, but they found no significant difference in conceptual knowledge acquisition.”
From The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL): a Theoretical Research-Based Model of Learning in Immersive Virtual Reality (2021) · cites this paper as Parong and Mayer 2018
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Social Interaction With Agents and Avatars in Immersive Virtual Environments: A Survey
Kyrlitsias, C., & Michael‐Grigoriou, D. (2022) · Frontiers in Virtual Reality · doi:10.3389/frvir.2021.786665 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
“…an opportunity to explore objects or events that are not accessible, such as the solar system, historical places, and events (Villena Taranilla et al., 2019; Kyrlitsias et al., 2020) or the inside of the human body (Parong and Mayer, 2018; Michael-Grigoriou, Yiannakou and Christo fi , 2017).”
BackgroundSouchet, A. D., Philippe, S., Lourdeaux, D., & Leroy, L. (2021) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2021.1976509 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
“However, VR could also saturate working memory while learning because of unnecessary cognitive treatments not related to the learning object (Parong & Mayer, 2018), therefore, adding extrinsic load.”
BackgroundShu, Y., Huang, Y.-Z., Chang, S.-H., & Chen, M. (2018) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-018-0376-x · Cited by 194 · see citing works
“In science education, Parong and Mayer (2018) observed that slideshows benefit students’ learning better than VR, but students report higher motivation and interest while using VR.”
BackgroundImmersive virtual reality for science learning: Design, implementation, and evaluation
Matovu, H., Ungu, D. A. K., Won, M., Tsai, C., Treagust, D. F., Mocerino, M., & Tasker, R. (2022) · Studies in Science Education · doi:10.1080/03057267.2022.2082680 · Cited by 215 · see citing works
“For example, Parong and Mayer (2018), Parong and Mayer (2020), and Jian Zhao et al. (2020) all used the same commercial program The Body VR: Journey Inside a Cell with HTC VIVE headsets to conduct their studies.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMakransky, G., Wismer, P., & Mayer, R. E. (2018) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12335 · Cited by 177 · see citing works
“There are several examples of studies that have investigated learning and presence in immersive VR that suggest that higher presence does not necessarily lead to more learning (e.g., Makransky, Terkildsen & Mayer, 2017; Moreno & Mayer, 2002; Parong & Mayer, 2018).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationDiverse approaches to learning with immersive Virtual Reality identified from a systematic review
Won, M., Ungu, D. A. K., Matovu, H., Treagust, D. F., Tsai, C., Park, J., Mocerino, M., & Tasker, R. (2022) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104701 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
Virtual reality as a promising tool to promote climate change awareness
Fauville, G., Queiroz, A. C. M., & Bailenson, J. N. (2020) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-816958-2.00005-8 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
The Potential of Immersive Virtual Reality for Cognitive Training in Elderly
Bauer, A. C. M., & Andringa, G. (2020) · Gerontology · doi:10.1159/000509830 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
“Some studies report VR setups to provide higher levels of motivation than conventional setups, in both young [106] and elderly subjects [107].”
BackgroundBaceviciute, S., Terkildsen, T. S., & Makransky, G. (2021) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2020.104122 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
Klingenberg, S., Jørgensen, M. L. M., Dandanell, G., Skriver, K., Mottelson, A., & Makransky, G. (2020) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.13029 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Head-Mounted Display Virtual Reality in Post-secondary Education and Skill Training
Concannon, B., Esmail, S., & Roberts, M. R. (2019) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2019.00080 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Morélot, S., Garrigou, A., Dedieu, J., & N’Kaoua, B. (2021) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2021.104145 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
The Promise and Pitfalls of Learning in Immersive Virtual Reality
Mayer, R. E., Makransky, G., & Parong, J. A. (2022) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2022.2108563 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
“As a control group, students learned the same material from a computer-based tutorial The next two rows of Table 5 summarize two experiments by Parong and Mayer (2018, 2021a) comparing learning with an IVR lesson on the human bloodstream, entitled The Body VR: Journey Inside a Cell…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationMultimedia learning principles in different learning environments: a systematic review
Çeken, B., & Taşkın, N. (2022) · Smart Learning Environments · doi:10.1186/s40561-022-00200-2 · Cited by 277 · see citing works
Liu, R., Wang, L., Koszalka, T. A., & Wan, K. (2022) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12688 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Learning about history in immersive virtual reality: does immersion facilitate learning?
Parong, J. A., & Mayer, R. E. (2021) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-021-09999-y · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Self-citationAlnagrat, A. J. A., Ismail, R. C., Idrus, S. Z. S., & Alfaqi, R. M. A. (2022) · Journal of Human Centered Technology · doi:10.11113/humentech.v1n2.27 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
“In spite of the fact that VR-based games lead to student motivation and improved learning [38].”
BackgroundGonzález-Zamar, M.-D., & Abad‐Segura, E. (2020) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci10090225 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
“Therefore, it is key to include this technology in educational practices to achieve better quality standards [37].”
BackgroundBenefits of immersive collaborative learning in CAVE-based virtual reality
de Back, T. T., Tinga, A. M., Nguyen, P., & Louwerse, M. M. (2020) · International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education · doi:10.1186/s41239-020-00228-9 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
“Investigated areas are varied and cover topics including academic learning (Makransky, Terkildsen, & Mayer, 2017; Maresky et al., 2019; Parong & Mayer, 2018; Webster, 2016), motion learning (Chen et al., 2019; LaFortune & Macuga, 2018) and skills training (Buttussi & Chittaro, 2018; Li, Liang,…”
BackgroundResultConrad, M., Kablitz, D., & Schumann, S. (2024) · Computers & Education X Reality · doi:10.1016/j.cexr.2024.100053 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Cheng, K., & Tsai, C. (2020) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.12956 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Zhao, J., Femina, P. C. L., Carr, J., Sajjadi, P., Wallgrün, J. O., & Klippel, A. (2020) · IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces (VR) · doi:10.1109/vr46266.2020.00012 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
A Comprehensive Review of Multimodal XR Applications, Risks, and Ethical Challenges in the Metaverse
Kourtesis, P. (2024) · Multimodal Technologies and Interaction · doi:10.3390/mti8110098 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
“These virtual experiences can be personalized using GSR and facial tracking to monitor the student’s emotional state, ensuring that the scenarios remain supportive and adaptive to their comfort levels [70].”
Nicolaidou, I. A., Pissas, P., & Boglou, D. (2021) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2020.1870504 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
“…in recent studies of the past fi ve years, in di ff erent disciplines, such as learning science (Alrehaili & Al Osman, 2019; Makransky et al., 2019; Parong & Mayer, 2018), chemistry (Winkelmann et al., 2019), math (Shi et al., 2019), history (Villena Taranilla et al., 2019), nursing (Chang et…”
BackgroundInfluentialCollaborative Immersive Virtual Environments for Education in Geography
Šašinka, Č., Stachoň, Z., Sedlák, M., Chmelík, J., Heřman, L., Kubíček, P., Šašinková, A., Doležal, M., Tejkl, H., Urbánek, T., et al. (2018) · ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information · doi:10.3390/ijgi8010003 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
“In future studies, quantitative confirmation of the findings will be extensive and include effectiveness comparisons with traditional tools such as GIS (Parong & Mayer) [109].”
MethodMartinez‐Marquez, D., Pingali, S., Panuwatwanich, K., Stewart, R. A., & Mohamed, S. (2021) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s21134289 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
“Virtual technology uses a head-mounted display helmet fitted with motion tracking sensors that allows users to engage in a fully immersive sensory experience in a designed space [221].”
BackgroundThe potential of 360-degree virtual reality videos to teach water-safety skills to children
Araiza-Alba, P., Keane, T., Matthews, B. L., Simpson, K., Strugnell, G., Chen, W. S., & Kaufman, J. (2020) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2020.104096 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
The Effects of Virtual Reality-Assisted Language Learning: A Meta-Analysis
Chen, B., Wang, Y., & Wang, L.-H. (2022) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su14063147 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Developing a hands‐on activity using virtual reality to help students learn by doing
Chen, J., Huang, Y., Lin, K., Chang, Y., Lin, H.-C., Lin, C., & Hsiao, H. (2019) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12389 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Media comparison studies dominate comparative research on augmented reality in education
Buchner, J., & Kerres, M. (2023) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104711 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Andersen, M. S., & Makransky, G. (2020) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12478 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
“The studies describe other factors such as the complexity of virtual learning environments and the interaction features within these environments as important components of extraneous cognitive load that can impair learning (Makransky, et al., 2019b; Meyer et al., 2019; Parong & Mayer, 2018).”
BackgroundYang, C., Zhang, J., Hu, Y., Yang, X., Chen, M. H., Shan, M., & Li, L. (2024) · International Journal of STEM Education · doi:10.1186/s40594-024-00487-2 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Age-Related Differences With Immersive and Non-immersive Virtual Reality in Memory Assessment
Plechatá, A., Sahula, V., Fayette, D., & Fajnerová, I. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01330 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
“Despite the motivational potential of HMD, the higher immersion can distract participants from the studied material (Moreno and Mayer, 2004; Richards and Taylor, 2015; Parong and Mayer, 2018).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialLearning in immersed collaborative virtual environments: design and implementation
de Back, T. T., Tinga, A. M., & Louwerse, M. M. (2021) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2021.2006238 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
“In a fi rst experiment, Parong and Mayer (2018) failed to obtain learning gains for factual information of an IVR simulation over a PowerPoint condition, and concluded that the immersive condition was not purpose-built and violated the coherence and segmenting principles.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialGuerra-Tamez, C. R. (2023) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci13020185 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
“VR technology can be used to teach a wide range of topics, from language [7] and math [8] to science [9] and design [10,11].”
BackgroundCollaborative generative learning activities in immersive virtual reality increase learning
Petersen, G. B., Stenberdt, V. A., Mayer, R. E., & Makransky, G. (2023) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2023.104931 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Self-citationKuleto, V., Ilić, M. P., Stănescu, M., Ranković, M., Šević, N. P., Păun, D. G., & Teodorescu, S. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su132111814 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
“More research is needed to determine whether or not extended reality is helpful for teaching and learning [47].”
BackgroundVR and MR technology for safety management education: An authentic learning approach
Yang, F., & Goh, Y. M. (2022) · Safety Science · doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2021.105645 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Cooper, N., Milella, F., Cant, I., White, M., & Meyer, G. F. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0248225 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
“• Overall learning strategy: Parong and Mayer [54] have shown that generative learning schemes, encouraging learners to actively engage with the material, improves performance; augmented cues in the virtual environment can control learner engagement with the simulation.”
BackgroundChen, Y.-L., Hsu, C.-C., Lin, C., & Hsu, H.-H. (2022) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci12070437 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Zinchenko, Y. P., Khoroshikh, P. P., Sergievich, A. A., Smirnov, A. S., Tumyalis, A. V., Kovalev, A. I., Gutnikov, S. A., & Golokhvast, K. S. (2020) · New Ideas in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2020.100786 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Talukdar, N., & Yu, S. (2021) · Journal of Strategic Marketing · doi:10.1080/0965254x.2021.1967428 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
“…immersion ranges from none to low, (Advisory Group on Computer Graphics, 1996), users interact with a 3D environment displayed on a screen through an interface (mouse, touchscreen, touchpad, or handheld control) while seated in front of a computer (Parong & Mayer, 2018; Robertson et al., 1993).”
The mediating role of presence differs across types of spatial learning in immersive technologies
Parong, J. A., Pollard, K. A., Files, B. T., Oiknine, A. H., Sinatra, A. M., Moss, J. D., Passaro, A. D., & Khooshabeh, P. (2020) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2020.106290 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Self-citationVergara, D., Extremera, J., Rubio, M. P., & Dávila, L. P. (2019) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app9214625 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
“Indeed, more recent studies [37] have confirmed that when students use VR in a learning setting, they are more engaged and are more motivated compared to when they use conventional tools such as slide presentations via PowerPoint.”
BackgroundUsing Extended Reality in Flight Simulators: A Literature Review
Cross, J. I., Boag-Hodgson, C. C., Ryley, T. J., Mavin, T. J., & Potter, L. E. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics · doi:10.1109/tvcg.2022.3173921 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
“[56] Studies the instructional effectiveness of VR and examines the efficacy of adding a generative learning strategy to a VR lesson.”
BackgroundTai, K., Hong, J., Tsai, C.-R., Lin, C.-Z., & Hung, Y.-H. (2022) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104458 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Mallek, F., Mazhar, T., Shah, S. F. A., Ghadi, Y. Y., & Hamam, H. (2024) · PeerJ Computer Science · doi:10.7717/peerj-cs.2000 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
“Parong & Mayer (2018) examined the effectiveness of VR in teaching physics concepts to secondary school students.”
BackgroundImmersive virtual reality for increasing presence and empathy
Han, I., Shin, H. S., Ko, Y., & Shin, W. S. (2022) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12669 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Unintended consequences of spatial presence on learning in virtual reality
Ahn, S. J., Nowak, K. L., & Bailenson, J. N. (2022) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104532 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Elme, L., Jørgensen, M. L. M., Dandanell, G., Mottelson, A., & Makransky, G. (2022) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-022-10139-3 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
“…principle currently under scrutiny was selected based on literature that suggests that it is important to include scaffolding strategies when implementing IVR based science lessons (e.g., Klingenberg et al., 2020; Makransky & Petersen, 2021; Parong & Mayer, 2018, 2020; Zhao et al, 2020).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialGuan, J., Wang, L.-H., Qu, C. H. E. N., Jin, K., & Hwang, G. (2021) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2021.1871631 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“It was indicated that students with VR were more motivated, interested, and engaged in learning, and more critical in their thinking (Huang et al., 2016; Parong & Mayer, 2018; Tarng et al., 2017).”
BackgroundAn evaluation model to assess the communication effects of intangible cultural heritage
Xue, K., Li, Y., & Meng, X. (2019) · Journal of Cultural Heritage · doi:10.1016/j.culher.2019.05.021 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Where is the learning in mobile technologies for learning?
Mayer, R. E. (2019) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2019.101824 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Self-citationHoluša, V., Vaněk, M., Beneš, F., Švub, J., & Staša, P. (2023) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su151712886 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Training in virtual reality enables learning of a complex sports movement
Pastel, S., Petri, K., Chen, C. H., Cáceres, A. M. W., Stirnatis, M., Nübel, C., Schlotter, L., & Witte, K. (2022) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-022-00679-7 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
“2019; Parong and Mayer 2018).”
Makransky, G., & Klingenberg, S. (2022) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12670 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
“…of VR-based learning and training interventions is related to how the VR simulations are designed (e.g., Baceviciute et al., 2021,c; Bower & Jong, 2020; Cavalcanti et al., 2021; Makransky, Borre-Gude, & Mayer, 2019; Makransky & Petersen, 2021; Parong & Mayer, 2018; Petersen et al., 2020, 2022).”
BackgroundKim, N. J., Vicentini, C. R., & Belland, B. R. (2021) · International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education · doi:10.1007/s10763-020-10145-y · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Immersive Anatomy Atlas: Learning Factual Medical Knowledge in a Virtual Reality Environment
Gloy, K., Weyhe, P., Nerenz, E., Kaluschke, M., Uslar, V., Zachmann, G., & Weyhe, D. (2021) · Anatomical Sciences Education · doi:10.1002/ase.2095 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
“Immersive VR is associated with higher ratings for interest and motivation in students (Parong and Mayer, 2018).”
BackgroundLearning experience design with immersive virtual reality in physics education
Georgiou, Y., Tsivitanidou, O., & Ioannou, A. (2021) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-021-10055-y · Cited by 100 · see citing works
“…benefits when using immersive VR over low-immersion media and traditional instruction delivery (e.g., Green-wald et al., 2018; Madden et al., 2018) or they have even reported lower learning gains for the students who used immersive VR environments (Parong & Mayer, 2018; Makransky et al., 2019).”
BackgroundLee, S. W., Hsu, Y.-T., & Cheng, K. (2022) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104456 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Immersive procedural training in virtual reality: A systematic literature review
Jongbloed, J., Chaker, R., & Lavoué, É. (2024) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2024.105124 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
“Originally developed to understand less immersive multimedia learning, the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML; Mayer, 2021) has been adapted and applied to understand learning in VR (Mayer et al., 2023; Parong, 2021; Parong & Mayer, 2018).”
Sun, J. C., Ye, S.-L., Yu, S., & Chiu, T. K. F. (2022) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-022-10001-4 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
“Parong and Mayer (2018) suggested that immersive VR can improve the stimulation of learning motivation, interest, and engagement among students, compared with traditional media.”
BackgroundInfluentialA Systematic Review of Virtual Reality Features for Skill Training
Tusher, H. M., Mallam, S., & Nazir, S. (2024) · Technology Knowledge and Learning · doi:10.1007/s10758-023-09713-2 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
“An important aspect of VR training is that sometimes it does not support actual learning as much as it induces enjoyment, motivation, or engagement (Makransky et al., 2019; Parong & Mayer, 2018; Zhao et al., 2022).”
Wang, Q., & Li, Y. (2024) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12949 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Pande, P., Thit, A., Sørensen, A. E., Mojsoska, B., Moeller, M. E., & Jepsen, P. M. (2021) · Research in Learning Technology · doi:10.25304/rlt.v29.2482 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
“Several other studies have demonstrated positive effects of iVR on most affective aspects of learning regardless of: iVR’s success in supporting actual content or conceptual learning (Garcia-Bonete, Jensen, and Katona 2019; Madden et al. 2020; Parong and Mayer 2018; Tan and Waugh 2013), the implementation-related logi…”
BackgroundInfluentialAre we ready for virtual reality in K–12 classrooms?
Araiza-Alba, P., Keane, T., & Kaufman, J. (2022) · Technology Pedagogy and Education · doi:10.1080/1475939x.2022.2033307 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
“This increase in sensory and extraneous information can disrupt the process of organising the material, as well as prime the learner to integrate the content with prior knowledge in an inappropriate manner (Parong & Mayer, 2018).”
BackgroundSeifan, M., Robertson, N., & Berenjian, A. (2020) · Education for Chemical Engineers · doi:10.1016/j.ece.2020.07.006 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Game‐based learning has good chemistry with chemistry education: A three‐level meta‐analysis
Hu, Y., Gallagher, T. J., Wouters, P., van der Schaaf, M. F., & Kester, L. (2022) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21765 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Using immersive virtual reality to support designing skills in vocational education
Kim, K. G., Oertel, C., Dobricki, M., Olsen, J. K., Coppi, A. E., Cattáneo, A., & Dillenbourg, P. (2020) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.13026 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Pedagogical Agents in Educational VR: An in the Wild Study
Petersen, G. B., Mottelson, A., & Makransky, G. (2021) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3411764.3445760 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
“Previous research points to the benefits of embodiment, which led Mayer to conclude that when pedagogical agents display human-like gesturing, movement, facial expressions, etc. as opposed to appearing static, it leads to better learning.”
BackgroundInfluentialLo, S., & Tsai, H.-H. (2022) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s22218329 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“Parong and Mayer, 2018 [27] Immersion 55 college students, ages 18–30 VR, PPT Slides HMD/Desktop PPT Slides No”
Background
- Authors
- Parong, J., & Mayer, R. E.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Santa Barbara (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Educational Psychology
- Published
- 2018-08
- Volume
- 110
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 785-797
- ISSN
- 0022-0663 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2176
- OpenAlex
- W2792133971
- Semantic Scholar
- dde037402363fde92e5f61c3c1d7f25620e1ef3d
- Cited by
- 1,088
- References
- 70
- Citations by year
- 2026: 202 · 2025: 180 · 2024: 154 · 2023: 147 · 2022: 140 · 2021: 125 · 2020: 93 · 2019: 35 · 2018: 11
- FWCI
- 65.71
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Office of Naval Research (N000141612046)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Virtual Reality Applications and Impacts
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Education › Online and Blended Learning
- Keywords
- immersive virtual reality, science learning, generative learning strategy, cognitive theory of multimedia learning, interest theory, student motivation, student engagement, biology education, teaching effectiveness
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