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Cited by 16Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive ProcessesMindfulness and Compassion InterventionsPsychosomatic Disorders and Their Treatments

Examining the Role of Implicit Emotional Judgments in Social Anxiety and Experiential Avoidance

Open access
Levin, Michael E., Haeger, Jack, Smith, Gregory S.·2017·Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment
DOI 10.1007/s10862-016-9583-5
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Abstract

This study sought to examine the relationship of implicit emotional judgments with experiential avoidance (EA) and social anxiety. A sample of 61 college students completed the Emotional Judgment – Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure (EJ-IRAP) as well as a public speaking challenge. Implicit judgments were related to greater self-reported EA, anxiety sensitivity, emotional judgments and social anxiety as well as lower performance ratings and willingness in the public speaking challenge. Effects differed by trial type with “Anxiety is bad” biases related to greater EA/anxiety, while “calm is bad” biases related to lower EA/anxiety (“Good” biases were generally unrelated to outcomes). Implicit emotional judgments moderated the relationship of heart rate during the speech with speech time and willingness, such that increases in heart rate were only related to lower speech time and willingness among those high in implicit judgments. Implicit judgments predicted social anxiety above and beyond self-report EA measures. Implicit emotional judgments appear to have a functional role in EA and anxiety that warrants further research. © 2016, Springer Science+Business Media New York.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1007/s10862-016-9583-5

Cites

65 of 65 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

14 tests recomputed · 0 with the reported and recomputed p on opposite sides of .05

Claims the paper makes

12 of 63 cited sources checked · 7 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    EA predicts a range of specific anxiety disorders over and above general distress measures.

    “EA has been found to predict anxiety disorders up to two years later (Spinhoven et al., 2014), to predict a range of specific anxiety disorders over and above general distress measures (e.g., Levin, MacLane, et al., 2014) and over and above other known predictors such as anxiety sensitivity (e.g., Gloster et al., 2013).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Levin, MacLane, et al., 2014 source

      The Results (Relationship of AAQ-II to Depressive, Anxiety, Substance Use and Eating Disorders; page unavailable) report associations between psychological inflexibility and several specific anxiety disorders after controlling for general distress (GHQ). The Discussion calls the study cross-sectional and describes these as relationships, not evidence that experiential avoidance predicts subsequent diagnoses. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Research using the FFMQ-NJ has found it relates to a range of problems including depression, anxiety, eating, and substance use disorders.

    “Research using the FFMQ-NJ has found it relates to a range of problems including depression, anxiety, eating, and substance use disorders (Desrosier et al., 2013;Lavender et al., 2011;Levin, Dalrymple, et al., 2014).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Desrosier et al., 2013 source

      The Methods (Measures) identify nonjudging as an FFMQ subscale, and the Results report associations between mindfulness facets and symptoms of depression and anxiety. The paper does not report associations with eating disorders or substance use disorders; the Methods (Procedure) say participants with current substance abuse or dependence were excluded. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Lavender et al., 2011 source
    • cites Levin, Dalrymple, et al., 2014 source
  • Premisecitation

    LSAS > 60 is a validated clinical cutoff for severe social anxiety.

    “using validated clinical cutoff scores (Rytwinski et al., 2009).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rytwinski et al., 2009 source

      The Abstract and the “Generalized Social Anxiety Disorder Versus Nongeneralized Social Anxiety Disorder” section identify an LSAS-SR cutoff of 60 for distinguishing generalized from nongeneralized social anxiety disorder. They do not validate a score above 60 as a cutoff for *severe* social anxiety; the severity interpretation is unsupported. (LLM, conf=0.90)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    The use of an implicit measure of emotional judgments helps to overcome limitations found in explicit self-report measures of EA.

    “The use of an implicit measure of emotional judgments helps to overcome the limitations found in explicit self-report measures of EA (i.e., response bias, limitations with insight).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Barnes-Holmes et al., 2010 source

      The Method section (p. 9) says IRAP results can diverge from explicit self-reports and that participants find IRAP effects difficult to fake, supporting the point about response bias. The REC model section (p. 10) distinguishes automatic evaluations from more considered explicit responses. The paper does not establish that an implicit measure overcomes limitations of self-reports of EA specifically, or a limitation involving insight; it also cautions that implicit responses can be affected by self-presentation (p. 12). (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Research on decoupling effects suggests that acceptance and mindfulness can change the function of implicit cognitions so they no longer influence behavior.

    “For example, research on decoupling effects (Levin, Luoma & Haeger, 2015) suggest that acceptance and mindfulness can change the function of implicit cognitions so they no longer influence behavior (see Ostafin et al., 2012 for an example).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Levin, Luoma & Haeger, 2015 source
    • cites Ostafin et al., 2012 source
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 56
  • May combine two claims. 32
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 2

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Practice was used to establish quick and accurate responding under the two sets of rules, a requisite feature for detecting IRAP effects.

    “Practice was used to establish quick and accurate responding under the two sets of rules, a requisite feature for detecting IRAP effects (Barnes-Holmes et al., 2010).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Barnes-Holmes et al., 2010 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    This procedure has been used successfully in previous IRAP research to ensure participants respond quickly and accurately enough to provide valid test data.

    “This procedure has been used successfully in previous IRAP research to ensure participants respond quickly and accurately enough to provide valid test data before proceeding to the actual IRAP test (Barnes-Holmes et al., 2010;Nicholson & Barnes-Holmes, 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Barnes-Holmes et al., 2010 source
    • cites Nicholson & Barnes-Holmes, 2012 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The FFMQ-NJ had an internal consistency of α = .92 in the current study.

    “The FFMQ-NJ has been found to be reliable and valid in past studies (Baer et al., 2006) with an internal consistency of α = .92 in the current study.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Baer et al., 2006 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Public speaking is the most commonly reported fear among individuals with a social phobia.

    “Public speaking is the most commonly reported fear among individuals with a social phobia (Ruscio et al., 2008) and estimated to elicit at least some level of anxiety in the majority (85%) of the general population (Motley, 1995).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ruscio et al., 2008 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The AAQ-II had an internal consistency of α = .93 in the current study.

    “The AAQ-II has been found to have adequate reliability and validity in past studies with college students (Bond et al., 2011) with an internal consistency of α = .93 in the current study.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bond et al., 2011 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Implicit cognitions capture more immediate, spontaneous and automatic verbal responses that occur right after encountering stimuli such as emotions.

    “In contrast, implicit cognitions capture the more immediate, spontaneous and automatic verbal responses that occur right after encountering stimuli such as emotions (Barnes-Holmes et al., 2010;De Houwer & Moors, 2010).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Barnes-Holmes et al., 2010 source
    • cites De Houwer & Moors, 2010

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The internal consistency for the ASI total score was adequate in the current study (α = .86).

    “The internal consistency for the ASI total score was adequate in the current study (α = .86).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The internal consistency for the LSAS was adequate in the current study (α = .95).

    “The internal consistency for the LSAS was adequate in the current study (α = .95).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Those with low to moderate social anxiety demonstrated both a significant 'calm is bad' and 'calm is good' bias.

    “It is also worth noting that those with low to moderate social anxiety demonstrated both a significant”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    Only those with low to moderate social anxiety demonstrated a significant 'calm is bad' bias; only those with severe social anxiety demonstrated a significant 'anxiety is bad' bias.

    “One sample t-tests within each subgroup indicated that only those with low to moderate social anxiety demonstrated a significant”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    The interaction between heart rate and calm-good scores showed a similar pattern with conditional effects moderated by 'calm is good' bias.

    “which showed a similar pattern with conditional effects moderated by”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Willingness to complete another speech is a behavioral measure of experiential avoidance.
    • Rests on an assumption: Changes in heart rate during the speech index anxiety.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Statistical trends in predicting speech time were found for interactions between heart rate and anxiety-good scores, β = 10.81, t(54) = 1.94, p = .06, and total EJ-IRAP scores, β = 16.79, t(54) = 1.69, p = .098.

    “Statistical trends in predicting speech time were also found for interactions between heart rate and anxiety-good, β = 10.81,t(54) = 1.94, p = .06,and total EJ-IRAP scores, β = 16.79,t(54) = 1.69, p = .098”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Changes in heart rate during the speech index anxiety.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Participants unwilling to complete another speech had an 'anxiety is not good and calm is not bad' bias, while willing participants showed a 'calm is bad' bias.

    “Those who were unwilling had an”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Willingness to complete another speech is a behavioral measure of experiential avoidance.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    There were no differences between willing and unwilling groups on anxiety-bad, calm-good, or total EJ-IRAP scores.

    “There were no differences between groups on anxiety-bad, calm-good or total EJ-IRAP scores.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Willingness to complete another speech is a behavioral measure of experiential avoidance.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Although there was no 'anxiety is bad' bias at a group level, variation in this implicit bias was consistently correlated with greater EA.

    “Similarly, although there was no”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The average speaking time was 6.33 minutes (SD = 3.32) with only 34% completing the full 10-minute speech.

    “The average speaking time was 6.33 minutes (SD = 3.32) with only 34% completing the full 10-minute speech.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Not completing the full 10-minute speech reflects avoidant behavior.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Social anxiety symptoms correlated with anxiety-bad, calm-bad and total EJ-IRAP scores, such that greater 'anxiety is bad' bias was related to greater social anxiety while greater 'calm is bad' bias was related to lower social anxiety.

    “A series of correlations indicated that social anxiety symptoms correlated with anxietybad, calm-bad and total EJ-IRAP scores, such that a greater”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Mean EJ-IRAP scores by trial type were: calm is good M = .38 (SD = .32), calm is bad M = .09 (SD = .33), anxiety is good M = .00 (SD = .41), anxiety is bad M = -.02 (SD = .35), and total EJ-IRAP M = .09 (SD = .22).

    “The mean EJ-IRAP scores by trial type were: calm is good (M = .38,SD = .32),calm is bad (M = .09,SD = .33),anxiety is good (M = .00,SD = .41),anxiety is bad (M = -.02,SD = .35),and total EJ-IRAP (M = .09,SD = .22).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The majority of participants (86%) reported being willing to return to complete a second speech.

    “However, the majority of participants (86%) reported being willing to return to complete a second speech.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Almost all participants (97%) demonstrated an increase in heart rate from baseline to preparation (M = 10.79, SD = 9.07) and from baseline to during the speech (95%, M = 17.63, SD = 11.16).

    “Almost all participants (97%) demonstrated an increase in heart rate from baseline to preparation (M = 10.79,SD = 9.07) and from baseline to during the speech (95%, M = 17.63,SD = 11.16).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Increases in heart rate from baseline to preparation and during speech reflect anxiety induced by the public speaking challenge.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    LSAS was positively correlated with Anxiety-Bad (r = .41) and negatively correlated with Calm-Bad (r = -.36).

    “LSAS | .41** | -.12 | -.36** | .00 | .38**”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingnone given

    Most participants were able to meet the accuracy/speed criteria for practice blocks.

    “most participants were able to meet the accuracy/speed criteria for practice blocks.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    EJ-IRAP scores were related to severe social anxiety and poorer self-rated performance in the speech.

    “As would be expected, EJ-IRAP scores were related to severe social anxiety and poorer self-rated performance in the speech.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The public speaking task is a valid social anxiety challenge.
    • Rests on an assumption: Self-rated performance in the speech is a valid measure of performance.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Implicit positive judgments were generally unrelated to outcomes, despite the presence of these biases in the sample.

    “Contrary to predictions, implicit positive judgments were generally unrelated to outcomes, despite the presence of these biases in the sample.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    AAQ-II was positively correlated with Anxiety-Bad (r = .29) and negatively correlated with Calm-Bad (r = -.30).

    “AAQ-II | .29* | .08 | -.30* | -.18 | .15”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Public speaking is estimated to elicit at least some level of anxiety in 85% of the general population.

    “Public speaking is the most commonly reported fear among individuals with a social phobia (Ruscio et al., 2008) and estimated to elicit at least some level of anxiety in the majority (85%) of the general population (Motley, 1995).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Motley, 1995

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The MEAQ total score had an internal consistency of α = .89 in the current study.

    “The internal consistency for the MEAQ total score was adequate in the current study (α = .89).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    The speech instructions are consistent with a high demand characteristic condition to support persisting in the speech.

    “These instructions are similar to those used in other studies that examined length of speech time as a measure of behavioral avoidance (e.g., England, 2012) and are consistent with a high demand characteristic condition to support persisting in the speech (Matias & Turner, 1986).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites England, 2012 source
    • cites Matias & Turner, 1986 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Well-validated public speaking tasks and measures have been used in psychological research.

    “Well-validated public speaking tasks and measures have been used in psychological research (e.g., England et al., 2012;Hoffman et al., 2009), which allow for assessment of a wide range of domains relevant to implicit emotional judgments, including anxiety, persistence and willingness in the speech, performance, and so on.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites England et al., 2012 source
    • cites Hoffman et al., 2009

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A meta-analysis with 63 studies found a correlation of r = .45 between the AAQ and anxiety measures, with similar significant correlations across a range of specific disorders.

    “A meta-analysis with 63 such studies found a correlation of r = .45between the AAQ and anxiety measures, with similar significant correlations found across a range of specific disorders (Bluett et al., 2014).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bluett et al., 2014 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The speech instructions were designed to provide a clear expectation that participants persist for the entire 10 minutes.

    “The instructions were designed to provide a clear expectation that participants persist for the entire 10 minutes:”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    An additional 12 participants (16%) did not pass the EJ-IRAP practice trials and were excluded from analyses.

    “an additional 12 participants (16%) did not pass the EJ-IRAP practice trials and so were excluded from analyses (criteria for failing the practice trials are described below).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Participants had to score 80% accuracy or better with a median response latency of 2 seconds per block on 2 consecutive blocks to proceed to the testing blocks.

    “Participants had to score 80% accuracy or better with a median response latency of 2 seconds per block on 2 consecutive blocks to proceed to the testing blocks.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI) has been found to have adequate reliability and validity in past studies.

    “The ASI has been found to have adequate reliability and validity in past studies (Taylor et al., 2007).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Taylor et al., 2007 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisereasoning

    A key benefit of using the IRAP is that it allows one to parse overall implicit effects by trial type, providing a more precise examination of implicit effects for specific sets of stimuli.

    “However, a key benefit of using the IRAP is it allows one to parse these overall implicit effects by trial type, providing a more precise examination of implicit effects for specific sets of stimuli: anxiety-bad, anxiety-good, calm-bad, calm-good.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Ending the speech task prior to 600 seconds can be conceptualized as an attempt to escape anxiety elicited through the speech.

    “Theoretically, ending the task prior to 600 seconds can be conceptualized as an attempt to escape anxiety elicited through the speech.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The Social Performance Scale (SPS) has been found to be a reliable and valid measure in past research.

    “The SPS has been found to be a reliable and valid measure in past research (Rapee & Lim, 1992)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rapee & Lim, 1992 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    These results suggest that 'anxiety is bad' biases might only occur among a subgroup of individuals struggling with anxiety and EA, while the opposing 'calm is bad' bias might serve a protective function against anxiety and EA.

    “These results again suggest that”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The STAI showed a decrease from pre-speech (M = 51.08) to post-speech (M = 43.22), suggesting the measure was more likely capturing relief from finishing the speech challenge.

    “pre speech STAI M = 51.08,post speech STAI M = 43.22,suggesting the measure was more likely capturing relief from finishing the speech challenge.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The public speaking challenge was effective in inducing anxiety and avoidant behaviors.

    “Preliminary analyses indicated the public speaking challenge was effective in inducing anxiety and avoidant behaviors.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Increases in heart rate from baseline to preparation and during speech reflect anxiety induced by the public speaking challenge.
    • Rests on an assumption: Not completing the full 10-minute speech reflects avoidant behavior.
    • Rests on an assumption: The public speaking challenge is challenging to persist in.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Most issues associated with precision occurred when users were running at high speed (12.43 mph).

    “However, most of the issues associated with precision occurred when users were running at high speed (12.43 mph) (Valenti & Westerterp, 2013).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Valenti & Westerterp, 2013 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    There are mixed findings on speech duration as a behavioral avoidance measure: some studies show it is sensitive to intervention effects, while others fail to show changes or expected relations to anxiety measures.

    “although it is worth noting that there are mixed findings with some studies showing it is sensitive to intervention effects (e.g., Stein, Waller & Spates, 2010) and other intervention studies failing to show any changes (e.g., England et al., 2012) or expected relations to anxiety measures (Matias & Turner, 1986).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Stein, Waller & Spates, 2010

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites England et al., 2012 source
    • cites Matias & Turner, 1986 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory-State (STAI) was excluded from analyses because the critical speech anxiety data were not collected until after the speech had ended.

    “A self-report measures of anxiety was also collected (State-Trait Anxiety Inventory-State [STAI]; Spielberger, 1972), but was excluded from analyses because the critical speech anxiety data were not collected until after the speech had ended (i.e., no self-reported anxiety data were collected during the speech).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The Mio Alpha smartwatch consists of an optical heart rate module (OHRM) that utilizes photoplethysmography (PPG) to measure continuous heart rate alongside an accelerometer unit to measure and correct for movement artifacts.

    “The Mio Alpha smartwatch consists of an optical heart rate module (OHRM) that utilizes photoplethysmography (PPG) to measure continuous heart rate alongside an accelerometer unit to measure and correct for movement artifacts (Valenti & Westerterp, 2013).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Valenti & Westerterp, 2013 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The particular OHRM technology within the Mio Alpha smartwatch was validated against a traditional chest-strap heart rate monitor and ECG device, displaying overall high performance with non-significant error.

    “Furthermore, the particular OHRM technology within the Mio Alpha smartwatch was validated against a traditional chest-strap heart rate monitor and ECG device, in which the Mio Alpha displayed overall high performance with non-significant error”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Valenti & Westerterp, 2013 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Speech duration has been used as a behavioral avoidance measure in previous research using similar procedures.

    “Speech duration has been used as a behavioral avoidance measure in previous research using similar procedures”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Stein, Waller & Spates, 2010

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites England et al., 2012 source
    • cites Matias & Turner, 1986 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Results for the first aim generally supported the reliability and validity of the EJ-IRAP.

    “Results for the first aim generally supported the reliability and validity of the EJ-IRAP.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Similar measures of willingness have been used in past research testing acceptance-based interventions.

    “Similar measures of willingness have been used in past research testing acceptance-based interventions (e.g., Levitt et al., 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Levitt et al., 2004 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Anxiety sensitivity (ASI) is a strong predictor of anxiety.

    “a strong predictor of anxiety (Taylor et al., 2007).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Taylor et al., 2007 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The average error rate for participants in EJ-IRAP test trials was 11% (SD = 5%, range = 3% -22%).

    “The average error rate for participants in EJ-IRAP test trials was 11% (SD = 5%, range = 3% -22%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Split-half reliability for calm stimuli was r(61) = .29, p = .02.

    “With anxiety stimuli, the split-half reliability score was similar, r(61) = .46,p < .001,but it was somewhat lower for calm stimuli, r(61) = .29,p = .02.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    A total of 12 participants (16%) did not pass the practice trial criteria (80% accuracy and < 2,000ms median latency) and were excluded from all analyses.

    “A total of 12 participants (16%) did not pass the practice trial criteria (80% accuracy and < 2,000ms median latency) and were excluded from all analyses.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    The 'worried' stimulus was removed from all analyses.

    “This stimulus was therefore removed from all analyses.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The procedures for assessing willingness to return for a second speech were limited by the lack of clear information regarding whether the return visit would be compensated.

    “The procedures used for assessing whether a participant would be willing to return for a second speech were limited by the lack of clear information regarding whether the return visit would be compensated.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationcitation

    Increasing mindful awareness of cognitive biases from a defused and accepting perspective could allow one to choose how to effectively respond and decouple the direct effect of implicit judgments on EA.

    “Increasing mindful awareness of cognitive biases, from a defused and accepting perspective, could allow one to choose how to effectively respond in a given context and decouple the direct effect of implicit judgments on EA.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The interpretation of results emphasized overall patterns of findings rather than isolated effects to address the multiple analyses issue.

    “However, the interpretation of the results throughout this manuscript have emphasized overall patterns of findings, rather than more isolated effects, in an attempt to address this issue.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Attempts to collect self-report data related to the speech were excluded because no data were collected at the primary time point during the actual speech.

    “Although attempts were made to collect self-report data related to the speech, they were excluded because no data were collected at the primary time point during the actual speech.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Cognitive therapy models similarly theorize the role of implicit cognitions in maladaptive behaviors.

    “It is worth noting however, that cognitive therapy (CT) models similarly theorize the role of implicit cognitions in maladaptive behaviors (Teachman & Woody, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Teachman & Woody, 2004 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The EJ-IRAP is a valid and reliable measure of implicit emotional judgments in the context of anxiety.

    “These results suggest the EJ-IRAP is a valid and reliable measure of implicit emotional judgments in the context of anxiety.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The study did not include any variables to assess divergent validity for the EJ-IRAP.

    “Lastly in terms of measures, the study did not include any variables to assess divergent validity to further assess the precision and bounds of constructs the EJ-IRAP is related to.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Implicit research has begun to test other facets of EA, such as beliefs about avoidant versus accepting strategies with negative emotions and being willing versus trying to get rid of positive and negative emotions.

    “Implicit research has also begun to test other facets of EA, such as beliefs about avoidant versus accepting strategies with negative emotions (Hooper et al., 2010) and being willing versus trying to get rid of positive and negative emotions (Drake et al., in press).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Hooper et al., 2010 source
    • cites Drake et al., in press

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Intensive longitudinal research has begun to test whether psychopathology is related to more rigid, de-contextualized use of EA.

    “For example, intensive longitudinal research has begun to test whether psychopathology is related to more rigid, de-contextualized use of EA (e.g., Shahar & Herr, 2011)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Shahar & Herr, 2011 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationown data

    These implicit emotional judgments may represent a key aspect of EA to target in treatments for anxiety disorders.

    “These implicit emotional judgments may represent a key aspect of EA to target in treatments for anxiety disorders and future research is now needed to test if and how such biases can be targeted.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Adjustments to statistical significance criteria were considered but not used because the study was not adequately powered for more conservative testing.

    “Adjustments to the criteria for statistical significance were considered to adjust for family-wise error (e.g., Bonferroni correction), but were not used given the study was not adequately powered for this more conservative testing approach.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The results supported theoretical predictions that implicit emotional judgments contribute to social anxiety and responses to a public speaking task.

    “The results supported theoretical predictions that implicit emotional judgments contribute to social anxiety and responses to a public speaking task.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The public speaking task is a valid social anxiety challenge.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The combination of being relatively automatic, difficult to control, and outside of one's awareness, while still influencing behavior, suggests the potential benefits of an acceptance-based approach.

    “The combination of being relatively automatic, difficult to control, and outside of one's awareness, while still influencing behavior, suggests the potential benefits of an acceptance-based approach.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Implicit cognitions are difficult to modulate in assessment paradigms and thus difficult to directly control.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A CT perspective might conceptualize the causal connection between cognition and behavior as more stable, and focus on directly altering implicit cognitions to reduce maladaptive behaviors.

    “However, a CT perspective might conceptualize the causal connection between cognition and behavior as more stable, and instead focus on directly altering implicit cognitions to reduce maladaptive behaviors (Teachman & Woody, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Teachman & Woody, 2004 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    Speech time has been used as a behavioral measure of avoidance in past studies.

    “Although speech time has been used as a behavioral measure of avoidance in past studies”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The levels of social anxiety based on the LSAS were surprisingly high, suggesting adequate variance in symptomatology to examine anxiety outcomes despite the non-clinical sample.

    “The levels of social anxiety based on the LSAS were surprisingly high, suggesting there was at least adequate variance in symptomatology to examine anxiety outcomes despite the non-clinical sample.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationown data

    Implicit emotional judgments appear to be an important phenomenon to assess for furthering understanding of the negative effects of EA and its amelioration.

    “Implicit emotional judgments appear to be an important phenomenon to assess for furthering our understanding of the negative effects of EA and its amelioration.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants.

    “Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Laboratory-based research has shown how EA relates to broader difficulties with persisting in distressing tasks.

    “Laboratory-based research has shown how EA relates to broader difficulties with persisting in distressing tasks (e.g., Zettle et al., 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Zettle et al., 2012 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    This more flexible way of relating to emotions is largely consistent with acceptance-based therapies.

    “This more flexible way of relating to emotions is largely consistent with acceptance-based therapies, which seek to reduce rigid and unhelpful functions of cognition, while enhancing contextually sensitive responding”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Acceptance-based therapies seek to reduce rigid and unhelpful functions of cognition while enhancing contextually sensitive responding.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    It is unclear how well these findings might generalize to other populations.

    “Thus, it is unclear how well these findings might generalize to other populations (e.g., minority groups, older populations, populations with varied levels of cognitive functioning).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Individuals may continue to engage in EA based on emotional judgments, while being insensitive to direct contingencies that might otherwise extinguish these behaviors.

    “As a form of rule-governed behavior (Hayes, 1989), individuals may continue to engage in EA based on emotional judgments, while being insensitive to direct contingencies that might otherwise extinguish these behaviors.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hayes, 1989 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Heart rate data collected during the speech as a proxy for physiological arousal/anxiety was a fairly limited assessment method.

    “Although heart rate data were collected during the speech as a proxy for physiological arousal/anxiety, this was a fairly limited assessment method and future research would benefit from more extensive physiological measures of anxiety.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Ethical approval was obtained from the institutional research committee and procedures were in accordance with ethical standards.

    “All procedures performed in the study involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Previous research suggests high demand characteristics may alter the impact of anxiety on persistence, such that individuals persist despite high levels of anxiety that might typically lead to escape behavior.

    “However, previous research suggests such high demand characteristics may actually alter the impact of anxiety on persistence, such that individuals persist despite high levels of anxiety that might typically lead to escape behavior (Matias & Turner, 1986).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Matias & Turner, 1986 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    A non-clinical sample was recruited.

    “First of all, a non-clinical sample was recruited and future research is needed to examine how the EJ-IRAP functions among those with diagnosable anxiety disorders.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    A greater tendency to judge one's emotions as good and bad would increase EA behaviors that exacerbate social anxiety and behavioral avoidance.

    “Theoretically, a greater tendency to judge one's emotions as good and bad would increase EA behaviors that exacerbate social anxiety and behavioral avoidance.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
80 of 80

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The nonjudgmental subscale of the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ-NJ) is the only measure that assesses judgments of inner experiences.

    “The nonjudgmental subscale of the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ-NJ; Baer et al., 2006) is the only measure of which we are aware that assesses judgments of inner experiences.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Students likely assumed that returning for a second speech would be compensated with additional research credits.

    “We did not specifically reference whether returning would be compensated with additional research credits (for course credit/extra credit), but it is likely that students assumed such given typical expectations for completing laboratory research tasks in this context.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Fear of anxiety symptoms (ASI) is a construct highly related to experiential avoidance and emotional judgments within anxiety disorders.

    “This represents a construct highly related to EA, and emotional judgments more specifically, within the domain of anxiety disorders.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The LSAS assesses fear and avoidance of various social situations including performance situations.

    “The LSAS assesses fear and avoidance of various social situations including performance situations.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Both positive and negative emotional judgments are theoretically important in experiential avoidance and anxiety.

    “given the theoretical importance of both positive and negative emotional judgments in EA and anxiety.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Heart rate is a proxy for physiological indicators of anxiety.

    “Heart rate data were collected as a proxy for physiological indicators of anxiety”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Increases in heart rate from baseline to preparation and during speech reflect anxiety induced by the public speaking challenge.

    “Almost all participants (97%) demonstrated an increase in heart rate from baseline to preparation (M = 10.79,SD = 9.07) and from baseline to during the speech (95%, M = 17.63,SD = 11.16).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Not completing the full 10-minute speech reflects avoidant behavior.

    “The average speaking time was 6.33 minutes (SD = 3.32) with only 34% completing the full 10-minute speech.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The public speaking challenge is challenging to persist in.

    “Descriptive statistics for speech time and changes in heart rate from the speech were also examined to determine whether the task elicited anxiety and was challenging to persist in.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Willingness to complete another speech is a behavioral measure of experiential avoidance.

    “only one of the two behavioral measures of EA (willingness to complete a second speech) was consistently related to EJ-IRAP scores.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Changes in heart rate during the speech index anxiety.

    “moderation effects suggested that implicit emotional judgments interacted with increases in heart rate during the speech in predicting speech time and willingness to give another speech.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The public speaking task is a valid social anxiety challenge.

    “response to a public speaking challenge (i.e., performance, willingness)”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Self-rated performance in the speech is a valid measure of performance.

    “self-rated performance in the speech”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The IRAP allows for the detection of biases in each trial type because they can be calculated separately.

    “The IRAP allows for the detection of such effects as biases in each trial type can be calculated separately.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Implicit cognitions are difficult to modulate in assessment paradigms and thus difficult to directly control.

    “Second, implicit cognitions are defined in part by being difficult to modulate in assessment paradigms, suggesting this is a set of verbal processes that are difficult to directly control.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Acceptance-based therapies seek to reduce rigid and unhelpful functions of cognition while enhancing contextually sensitive responding.

    “This more flexible way of relating to emotions is largely consistent with acceptance-based therapies, which seek to reduce rigid and unhelpful functions of cognition, while enhancing contextually sensitive responding (i.e., being calm might have varying degrees of both good and bad functions depending on context).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    What verbal processes are problematic, in what contexts, and through what mechanisms has not been thoroughly studied to-date.

    “Furthermore, EA is distinguished from traditional behavioral concepts of avoidance/escape due to the role of verbal processes, but what verbal processes are problematic, in what contexts, and through what mechanisms has not been thoroughly studied to-date.”
17 of 17

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • The tendency to relate to anxiety as bad predicts avoidance behavior.

    “Laboratory-based research has modeled this, demonstrating for example that the tendency to relate to anxiety as bad predicts avoidance behavior 12”

    From Acceptance and Commitment Therapy as a Treatment for Anxiety and Depression (2017) · cites this paper as [12]

    In “Do implicit emotional judgments interact with increases in heart rate?” (page unavailable), an “anxiety is bad” bias predicted shorter speech time—a measure of avoidance—only when heart rate increased during the speech. The “public speaking outcomes” results found no direct association between that bias and speech time or willingness to give another speech. The citing sentence omits this condition and presents the relationship as a general prediction. (LLM, conf=0.87)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Statistics that don’t add up

Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.

  • Inconsistent p-value: ,z = 1.72, p = .06

    Minor

    The paper reports p = .06 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .085 (two-tailed). The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.

    Reported p = .06 · recomputed p = .085

1 of 1

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • Doesn’t add upz = 1.72reported p = .06 · recomputed p = .085

    “,z = 1.72, p = .06”

  • Consistentr(61) = 0.46reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “r(61) = .46,p < .001”

  • Consistentr(61) = 0.29reported p = .02 · recomputed p = .021

    “r(61) = .29,p = .02”

  • Consistentt(60) = 9.13reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “t(60) = 9.13, p < .001”

  • Consistentt(60) = 2.04reported p = .046 · recomputed p = .046

    “t(60) = 2.04, p = .046”

  • Consistentz = 2.05reported p = .04 · recomputed p = .040

    “,z = 2.05, p = .04”

  • Consistentz = 2.14reported p = .03 · recomputed p = .032

    “,z = 2.14, p = .03”

  • Consistentt(54) = 2.24reported p = .03 · recomputed p = .029

    “t(54) = 2.24, p = .03”

  • Consistentt(54) = 1.94reported p = .06 · recomputed p = .058

    “t(54) = 1.94, p = .06”

  • Consistentt(54) = 1.69reported p = .098 · recomputed p = .097

    “t(54) = 1.69, p = .098”

  • Consistentz = 1.9reported p = .06 · recomputed p = .057

    “,z = 1.90, p = .06”

  • Consistentz = 0.54reported p = .59 · recomputed p = .589

    “,z = .54,p = .59”

  • Consistentz = 1.08reported p = .28 · recomputed p = .280

    “,z = 1.08, p = .28”

  • Consistentz = 1.66reported p = .097 · recomputed p = .097

    “,z = 1.66, p = .097”

14 of 14

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Low-to-moderate anxiety cutoff changes between text and table

    Minor

    The analysis defines this group as having LSAS scores below 60, whereas Table 2 defines it as below 59. A score of 59 would be classified differently.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. Motley, M. T. (1995). Overcoming your fear of public speaking: A proven method. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Levin, M. E., Haeger, J., & Smith, G. S.
Affiliations
Utah State University (US)
Corresponding author
Levin, Michael E.
ORCID
Venue
Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2016-11-10
Volume
39
Issue
2
Pages
264-278
ISSN
  • 0164-0305 (ISSN-L)
  • 0882-2689
  • 1573-3505
DOI
10.1007/s10862-016-9583-5
OpenAlex
W2553421701
Cited by
16
References
65
Citations by year
2022: 3 · 2021: 1 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 2 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 2
FWCI
3.80
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
www.springer.com/tdm (unspecified)
Locations
  • Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment (publishedVersion)
  • Digital Commons - USU (Utah State University) (acceptedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Psychosomatic Disorders and Their Treatments
Keywords
social anxiety, experiential avoidance, anxiety sensitivity, public speaking, heart rate, speech performance

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-11.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-11.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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