Typecast: A Routine Mental Shortcut Causes Party Stereotyping
Open accessIntegrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Through a representativeness heuristic, we infer that the most extreme positions of some members of a group are the group's most common traits.
“Through a representativeness heuristic, we infer that the most extreme positions of some members of a group are, in fact, the group's most common traits (Ahler & Sood, 2023).”
From ¿Demasiado lejos? Cómo la polarización mal percibida alimenta la polarización afectiva en España (2025) · cites this paper as Ahler & Sood, 2023
Cites
Availability: A heuristic for judging frequency and probability
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1973) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(73)90033-9 · Cited by 9,984 · see citing works
The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion
Zaller, J. R. (1992) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511818691 · Cited by 7,785 · see citing works
Family resemblances: Studies in the internal structure of categories
Rosch, E., & Mervis, C. B. (1975) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(75)90024-9 · Cited by 5,933 · see citing works
Subjective probability: A judgment of representativeness
Kahneman, D. J., & Tversky, A. (1972) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(72)90016-3 · Cited by 4,880 · see citing works
What Americans Know about Politics and Why It Matters
Carpini, M. X. D., & Keeter, S. (1996) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2655098 · Cited by 4,864 · see citing works
Extensional versus intuitive reasoning: The conjunction fallacy in probability judgment.
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1983) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.90.4.293 · Cited by 3,991 · see citing works
Elder, J. W., Geertz, C., & Rosenhack, K. P. S. (1964) · Cited by 3,878 · see citing works
Representativeness revisited: Attribute substitution in intuitive judgment.
Kahneman, D., & Frederick, S. (2002) · Heuristics and Biases · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.004 · Cited by 3,476 · see citing works
Iyengar, S., Sood, G., & Lelkes, Y. (2012) · Public Opinion Quarterly · doi:10.1093/poq/nfs038 · Cited by 2,748 · see citing works
Self-citationFear and loathing across party lines: New evidence on group polarization
Iyengar, S., & Westwood, S. J. (2015) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1111/ajps.12152 · Cited by 2,452 · see citing works
What Americans know about politics and why it matters
(1996) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.34-0582 · Cited by 2,089 · see citing works
Hainmueller, J., Hopkins, D. J., & Yamamoto, T. (2014) · Political Analysis · doi:10.1093/pan/mpt024 · Cited by 1,990 · see citing works
Uncivil Agreement: How Politics Became Our Identity
Mason, L. (2018) · doi:10.7208/chicago/9780226524689.001.0001 · Cited by 1,985 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Political Behavior (2023) 45:1581–1607 et al., 2016; Green et al., 2002; Mason, 2018).”
BackgroundPolitical Polarization in the American Public
Fiorina, M. P., & Abrams, S. J. (2008) · Annual Review of Political Science · doi:10.1146/annurev.polisci.11.053106.153836 · Cited by 1,798 · see citing works
Who Governs? Democracy and Power in an American City.
Goldstein, M. N., & Dahl, R. A. (1962) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2090423 · Cited by 1,714 · see citing works
The Partisan Sort: How Liberals Became Democrats and Conservatives Became Republicans
Levendusky, M. (2009) · doi:10.7208/chicago/9780226473673.001.0001 · Cited by 1,698 · see citing works
Gender Stereotypes and the Perception of Male and Female Candidates
Huddy, L., & Terkildsen, N. (1993) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.2307/2111526 · Cited by 1,394 · see citing works
Seeing Black: Race, Crime, and Visual Processing.
Eberhardt, J. L., Goff, P. A., Purdie, V. J., & Davies, P. G. (2004) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.87.6.876 · Cited by 1,208 · see citing works
Partisanship and Voting Behavior, 1952-1996
Bartels, L. M. (2000) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.2307/2669291 · Cited by 1,207 · see citing works
Misinformation and the Currency of Democratic Citizenship
Kuklinski, J. H., Quirk, P. J., Jerit, J., Schwieder, D., & Rich, R. F. (2000) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1111/0022-3816.00033 · Cited by 1,167 · see citing works
The Role of Partisan Stereotypes in Information Processing about Political Candidates
Rahn, W. M. (1993) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.2307/2111381 · Cited by 900 · see citing works
Partisan bias in factual beliefs about politics
Bullock, J. G., Gerber, A. S., Hill, S. J., & Huber, G. A. (2015) · Quarterly Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1561/100.00014074 · Cited by 686 · see citing works
Us against them: ethnocentric foundations of American opinion
(2010) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.47-7142 · Cited by 637 · see citing works
Sniderman, P. M., & Piazza, T. (1993) · Harvard University Press eBooks · doi:10.4159/9780674043848 · Cited by 625 · see citing works
Category and stereotype activation: Is prejudice inevitable?
Lepore, L., & Brown, R. J. (1997) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.72.2.275 · Cited by 617 · see citing works
“Race Coding” and White Opposition to Welfare
Gilens, M. (1996) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.2307/2082611 · Cited by 596 · see citing works
The Parties in Our Heads: Misperceptions about Party Composition and Their Consequences
Ahler, D. J., & Sood, G. (2018) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1086/697253 · Cited by 586 · see citing works
Self-citationBordalo, P., Coffman, K. B., Gennaioli, N., & Shleifer, A. (2016) · The Quarterly Journal of Economics · doi:10.1093/qje/qjw029 · Cited by 550 · see citing works
Why Washington Won't Work: Polarization, Political Trust, and the Governing Crisis
Hetherington, M. J., & Rudolph, T. J. (2015) · doi:10.7208/chicago/9780226299358.001.0001 · Cited by 486 · see citing works
Racial Stereotypes and Whites' Political Views of Blacks in the Context of Welfare and Crime
Peffley, M., Hurwitz, J., & Sniderman, P. M. (1997) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.2307/2111708 · Cited by 461 · see citing works
Who governs? Democracy and power in an American city
Dahl, R. A. (1979) · Cited by 445 · see citing works
Clearer Cues, More Consistent Voters: A Benefit of Elite Polarization
Levendusky, M. S. (2010) · Political Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11109-009-9094-0 · Cited by 438 · see citing works
The Economic Consequences of Partisanship in a Polarized Era
McConnell, C., Margalit, Y., Malhotra, N., & Levendusky, M. (2018) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1111/ajps.12330 · Cited by 432 · see citing works
Does Media Coverage of Partisan Polarization Affect Political Attitudes?
Levendusky, M., & Malhotra, N. (2016) · Political Communication · doi:10.1080/10584609.2015.1038455 · Cited by 419 · see citing works
Racial Attitudes and Opposition to Welfare
Gilens, M. (1995) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.2307/2960399 · Cited by 406 · see citing works
A Partisan Schema for Political Information Processing
Lodge, M. G., & Hamill, R. (1986) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.2307/1958271 · Cited by 394 · see citing works
(Mis)perceptions of Partisan Polarization in the American Public
Levendusky, M. S., & Malhotra, N. (2016) · Public Opinion Quarterly · doi:10.1093/poq/nfv045 · Cited by 356 · see citing works
Race and Poverty in America: Public Misperceptions and the American News Media
Gilens, M. (1996) · Public Opinion Quarterly · doi:10.1086/297771 · Cited by 349 · see citing works
Graham, J., Nosek, B. A., & Haidt, J. (2011) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0050092 · Cited by 328 · see citing works
Stereotypes of Muslims and Support for the War on Terror
Sides, J., & Gross, K. (2013) · Journal of Politics · doi:10.1017/s0022381613000388 · Cited by 249 · see citing works
Gender Stereotypes, Information Search, and Voting Behavior in Political Campaigns
Ditonto, T., Hamilton, A., & Redlawsk, D. P. (2013) · Political Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11109-013-9232-6 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Common Concerns with MTurk as a Participant Pool: Evidence and SolutionsPreprint
Hauser, D., Paolacci, G., & Chandler, J. (2018) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/uq45c · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Pigeonholing Partisans: Stereotypes of Party Supporters and Partisan Polarization
Rothschild, J. E., Howat, A. J., Shafranek, R. M., & Busby, E. C. (2018) · Political Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11109-018-9457-5 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
On the Meaning, Measurement, and Implications of Racial Resentment
Carmines, E. G., Sniderman, P. M., & Easter, B. C. (2011) · The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science · doi:10.1177/0002716210387499 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Handbook of Research Methods in Consumer Psychology
Hauser, D., Paolacci, G., Chandler, J., Kardes, F. R., Herr, P. M., & Schwarz, N. (2019) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781351137713 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
“Nones” on the Rise: One-in-Five Adults Have No Religious Affiliation
(2019) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315177458-4 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
The micro-task market for lemons: data quality on Amazon's Mechanical Turk
Ahler, D. J., Roush, C. E., & Sood, G. (2021) · Political Science Research and Methods · doi:10.1017/psrm.2021.57 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Self-citationArab and Muslim Political Attitudes: Stereotypes and Evidence from Survey Research
Tessler, M. (2003) · International Studies Perspectives · doi:10.1111/1528-3577.402005 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Why So Serious?: Survey Trolls and MisinformationPreprint
Lopez, J., & Hillygus, D. S. (2018) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3131087 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Misinformation and Mass Audiences
Nelson, J. L. (2018) · Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media · doi:10.1080/08838151.2018.1524635 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
AMPing Racial Attitudes: Comparing the Power of Explicit and Implicit Racism Measures in 2008
Ditonto, T., Lau, R. R., & Sears, D. O. (2013) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12013 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Messer, W. S., & Griggs, R. A. (1993) · Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society · doi:10.3758/bf03337322 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Who’s at the Party? Group Sentiments, Knowledge, and Partisan Identity
Kane, J., Mason, L., & Wronski, J. (2021) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1086/715072 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Sides, J. M., & Citrin, J. (2007) · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Like Goes with Like: The Role of Representativeness in Erroneous and Pseudo-Scientific Beliefs
Gilovich, T. D., & Savitsky, K. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.036 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Disputed Ownership: Parties, Issues, and Traits in the Minds of Voters
Goggin, S. N., & Theodoridis, A. G. (2016) · Political Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11109-016-9375-3 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Bernhard, R. (2021) · Politics & Gender · doi:10.1017/s1743923x20000665 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Ahler, D. J. (2018) · The Forum · doi:10.1515/for-2018-0002 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Self-citationFour dimensions in political stereotypes.
Edwards, A. L. (1940) · Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0056213 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Dancey, L., & Sheagley, G. (2016) · American Politics Research · doi:10.1177/1532673x16630378 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
1 of the 61 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Place, Race, and the Geographic Politics of White Grievance
Dawkins, R., Nemerever, Z., Munis, B. K., & Verville, F. (2023) · Political Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11109-023-09897-4 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Issue Salience and Political Stereotypes
Bordalo, P., Tabellini, M., & Yang, D. (2020) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w27194 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Partisan Stereotyping and Polarization in Brazil
Samuels, D., Mello, F., & Zucco, C. (2023) · Latin American Politics and Society · doi:10.1017/lap.2023.38 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Can citizens guess how other citizens voted based on demographic characteristics?
Titelman, N., & Lauderdale, B. E. (2021) · Political Science Research and Methods · doi:10.1017/psrm.2021.53 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Scaduto, G., & Negri, F. (2024) · South European Society & Politics · doi:10.1080/13608746.2024.2411539 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Politicultural Linking: Inferences Between Political and Apolitical Traits
Scaduto, G. (2025) · Public Opinion Quarterly · doi:10.1093/poq/nfaf047 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Lee, S., & Kevins, A. (2025) · West European Politics · doi:10.1080/01402382.2025.2548167 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Hohe, E. (2025) · Political Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11109-025-10103-w · Cited by 1 · see citing works
¿Demasiado lejos? Cómo la polarización mal percibida alimenta la polarización afectiva en España
Rojo-Martínez, J. M. (2025) · Papers. Revista de Sociologia · doi:10.5565/rev/papers.3363
Delegation of Decision Rights and Inertia in Capital ReallocationPreprint
Asghar, N., & Obłój, T. (2022) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4014546
Clicks to Campaigns: The Social Media Exposures on College Students’ Political Engagement
Cabanay, R. M. D., Buat, E. D. P., Caab, K. D., Cabigon, S. U., Sibya, A. M. M., Silvero, G. L., Tipawan, A. N. C., & Batiancila, M. J. Q. (2025) · European Journal of Arts Humanities and Social Sciences · doi:10.59324/ejahss.2025.2(1).02
Extreme recall: which politicians come to mind?
Sood, G., & Weitzel, D. (2025) · Journal of Elections Public Opinion and Parties · doi:10.1080/17457289.2025.2474411
Self-citationIdeology at first sight: a comparative study of ideological stereotypes in four European countries
Scaduto, G., Negri, F., & Decadri, S. (2026) · International Journal of Public Opinion Research · doi:10.1093/ijpor/edag027
- Authors
- Ahler, D. J., & Sood, G.
- Affiliations
- Florida State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Ahler, Douglas J.
- Venue
- Political Behavior
- Published
- 2022-02-18
- Volume
- 45
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 1581-1607
- ISSN
- 0190-9320 (ISSN-L)
- 1573-6687
- OpenAlex
- W4226483070
- Cited by
- 14
- References
- 61
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 1 · 2020: 1
- FWCI
- 3.96
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Political Behavior (publishedVersion)
- SSRN Electronic Journal (acceptedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Electoral Systems and Political Participation
- Keywords
- representativeness heuristic, conjunction fallacy, representativeness bias, political polarization, cognitive load, numeracy, cognitive shortcuts
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review