Cited by 1,458Environmental Impact and SustainabilitySustainability and Ecological Systems AnalysisWater-Energy-Food Nexus Studies

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Water footprints of nations: Water use by people as a function of their consumption pattern

Hoekstra, A. Y., Chapagain, A. K.·2006·Water Resources Management

DOI 10.1007/s11269-006-9039-x

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Allan JA (1993) Fortunately there are substitutes for water otherwise our hydro-political futures would be impossible. In: Priorities for water resources allocation and management, ODA, London, pp 13–26
Haddadin MJ (2003) Exogenous water: A conduit to globalization of water resources. In: Hoekstra AY (ed) Virtual water trade: Proceedings of the International Expert Meeting on Virtual Water Trade. Value of Water Research Report Series No. 12, UNESCO-IHE, Delft, The Netherlands, http://www.waterfootprint.org/Reports/Report12.pdf http://www.waterfootprint.org/Reports/Report12.pdf

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“In addition, we can highlight those of Kummar and Singh (2005), Chapagain et al. (2006a), Hoekstra and Chapagain (2007, 2008) , Velazquez (2007), Madrid and Velazquez (2008), Aldaya et al. (2008), Chapagain and Hoekstra (2008), Rodriguez et al. (2008), Liu and Savenije (2008), Novo et al. (2009), Dabrowski et al. (200…”
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“By revealing surprisingly high volumes, like 140 L per cup of coffee (Chapagain and Hoekstra 2007), up to 15,500 L per kilogram of beef (Hoekstra and Chapagain 2007) or 2,700 L per cotton T-shirt (Chapagain et al.”
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The environmental impact of nutrition transition in three case study countries
Gill, M., Feliciano, D., Macdiarmid, J. I., & Smith, P. (2015) · Food Security · doi:10.1007/s12571-015-0453-x · Cited by 82
“The grey water footprint of a product refers to the volume of freshwater that is required to assimilate the load of pollutants based on existing ambient water quality standards (Hoekstra and Chapagain 2007).”
Background
Virtual phosphorus ore requirement of Japanese economy
Matsubae, K., Kajiyama, J., Hiraki, T., & Nagasaka, T. (2011) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2011.04.077 · Cited by 79
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Background
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López‐Gunn, E., & Llamas, M. R. (2008) · Natural Resources Forum · doi:10.1111/j.1477-8947.2008.00200.x · Cited by 79
“4 This concept was developed by Hoekstra and Hung (2002) and it is used as an indicator of water used by an individual, a collectivity or a country 5 (Hoekstra and Chapagain, 2006).”
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“[2] Improving water governance is widely regarded as the key to solving water insecurity problems in developing countries [Rijsberman and Zwane, 2008; Rogers and Hall, 2003; Briscoe, 2009; Hoekstra and Chapagain, 2006; Kashyap, 2004; Saleth and Dinar, 2005; Gopalakrishnan et al., 2004; Biswas and Tortajada, 2010; Asia…”
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“The water footprint is defined as “the total annual volume of fresh water required to produce the goods at the place of origin” (Hoekstra and Chapagain, 2007) and consists of three components: green, blue and grey water footprints.”
Background
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“Drawing on the calculations of national water footprint by Hoekstra and Chapagain (2007) and those of NF by Leach et al. (2012), the NNFmodel can be further refined as Fig.”
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“It imported agricultural products that require a large amount of water to produce (so called virtual water), essentially “saving” water for other purposes (Rock 1998; Hoekstra and Hung 2005; Hoekstra and Chapagain 2007 ).”
Background
Blue water scarcity and the economic impacts of future agricultural trade and demand
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“A 016/j.enpol.2009.11.015 viations: BISP, second scenario combining S production; C, amount of grain or seeds of c mental and Technological Research Centre (C icas, Medioambientales y Tecnológicas); CWR ; CY, crop yield (t/ha); CYdl, crop yield of dry land; ER, effective rainfall (mm); INE, Natio (Instituto Nacional…”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
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The environmental impact of Brazilian adults’ diet
Travassos, G. F., da Cunha, D. A., & Coelho, A. B. (2020) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.122622 · Cited by 67
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“Hence 1 ton of grain requires ~2000 tons of water [45].”
Global network of embodied water flow by systems input-output simulation
Chen, Z., Chen, G., Xia, X., & Xu, S. (2012) · Frontiers of Earth Science · doi:10.1007/s11707-012-0305-3 · Cited by 67
“The most attractive merit of the bottom-up approach is that it provides information about our daily necessities which can be connected with our lives intuitively, e.g., embodied water content of paddy rice, wheat, beef, and even T-shirt are identified separately in Hoekstra and Chapagian (2006). However, the diversity…”
Background
Todayʼs virtual water consumption and trade under future water scarcity
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“…more than ten years ago (see Hoekstra 2009), the water footprint of a nation has been used increasingly as a means of synthesizing a nationʼs water needs (Hoekstra and Hung 2005, Hoekstra and Chapagain 2006, Chapagain and Hoekstra 2008, Mekonnen and Hoekstra 2011, Hoekstra and Mekonnen 2012).”
Method
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“The key reason for using the net export is extracted from, 51 which has documented the signi ﬁ cant relationship between net export and environmental quality.”
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“Hoekstra and Hung (2005) and Hoekstra and Chapagain (2007) argue that, while pricing and technology can be means to increase local water use efficiency and reallocating water at basin scale to its higher value, virtual water trade between nations can be an instrument to increase ‘global water use efficiency’.”
Background
Water Footprints and Sustainable Water Allocation
Hoekstra, A. Y., Chapagain, A. K., & Zhang, G. (2015) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su8010020 · Cited by 66
“In the past, various global WFAs have been published [11–17].”
Background
Carbon, water and land use accounting: Consumption vs production perspectives
Ali, Y. (2016) · Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.rser.2016.09.022 · Cited by 65
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“The WF purpose is to study the links between human consumption and water use and between global trade and water resource management [6–8].”
Background
The water footprint of a river basin with a special focus on groundwater: The case of Guadalquivir basin (Spain)
Dumont, A., Salmoral, G., & Llamas, M. R. (2013) · Water Resources and Industry · doi:10.1016/j.wri.2013.04.001 · Cited by 64
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“such as coffee, tea, rice, and meat, and virtual water in non-food products has been extensively analyzed (Chapagain and Hoekstra, 2003; Hoekstra and Chapagain, 2007; Hoekstra and Hung, 2002, 2005).”
Water footprinting of dairy farming in Ireland
Murphy, E. G., de Boer, I. J. M., van Middelaar, C. E., Holden, N. M., Shalloo, L., Curran, T. P., & Upton, J. (2016) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.07.199 · Cited by 70
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Analysis of water footprint of a photobioreactor microalgae biofuel production system from blue, green and lifecycle perspectives
Batan, L., Quinn, J. C., & Bradley, T. H. (2013) · Algal Research · doi:10.1016/j.algal.2013.02.003 · Cited by 64
“WF is the freshwater consumption of a process or product per functional unit [5, 25, 26].”
Background
Water footprint of crop production for different crop structures in the Hebei southern plain, North China
Chu, Y., Shen, Y., & Yuan, Z. (2017) · Hydrology and earth system sciences · doi:10.5194/hess-21-3061-2017 · Cited by 62
“…WF (WFblue) refers to the volume of irrigation water consumed, the green WF (WFgreen) is consistent with the effective rainfall for plants, and the grey WF (WFgrey) represents the volume of water required to dilute pollutants to the agreed maximum acceptable levels (Hoekstra and Chapagain, 2007).”
Background
The global dimension of water governance: Nine reasons for global arrangements in order to cope with local water problems
Hoekstra, A. Y. (2006) · University of Twente Research Information · Cited by 62
The Inequality Footprints of Nations: A Novel Approach to Quantitative Accounting of Income Inequality
Alsamawi, A., Murray, J., Lenzen, M., Moran, D. D., & Kanemoto, K. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0110881 · Cited by 60
“It also facilitates the distinguishing of problematic unequal labour from equal labour worldwide just as we already distinguish ‘scarce water’ from ‘non-scarce water’ [22] and ethical labour from unethical labour such as child labour [5].”
Background
An ecological footprint for an early learning centre: identifying opportunities for early childhood sustainability education through interdisciplinary research
McNichol, H., Davis, J. M., & O’Brien, K. R. (2011) · Environmental Education Research · doi:10.1080/13504622.2011.572161 · Cited by 61
Global virtual water trade of avocado
Caro, D., Alessandrini, A., Sporchia, F., & Borghesi, S. (2020) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124917 · Cited by 61
Managing fisheries for environmental performance: the effects of marine resource decision-making on the footprint of seafood
Farmery, A. K., Gardner, C., Green, B. S., & Jennings, S. (2013) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.10.016 · Cited by 60
Environmental Kuznets curve and the water footprint: an empirical analysis
Miglietta, P. P., Leo, F. D., & Toma, P. (2016) · Water and Environment Journal · doi:10.1111/wej.12211 · Cited by 60
“…models considered, by adding more in depth analyses based on an alternative indicator focused on virtual water consumption (Hoekstra & Hung 2002; Hoekstra & Chapagain 2007), offering an extremely valuable perspective limited to one environmental aspect, that is water impact, and testing the…”
Background
Livestock production and the water challenge of future food supply: Implications of agricultural management and dietary choices
Weindl, I., Bodirsky, B. L., Rolinski, S., Biewald, A., Lotze‐Campen, H., Müller, C., Dietrich, J. P., Humpenöder, F., Stevanović, M., Schaphoff, S., et al. (2017) · Global Environmental Change · doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2017.09.010 · Cited by 65
Young consumers' preferences for water-saving wines: An experimental study
Pomarici, E., Asioli, D., Vecchio, R., & Næs, T. (2018) · Wine Economics and Policy · doi:10.1016/j.wep.2018.02.002 · Cited by 61
“Among the different drivers of water scarcity, agriculture is the main responsible because it consumes about 70% of the global freshwater (Hoekstra and Chapagain, 2006) which has significantly increased during the last 50 years (þ12% land”
Water footprint assessment within a catchment: A case study for Upper Tigris River Basin
Muratoğlu, A. (2019) · Ecological Indicators · doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2019.105467 · Cited by 61
On the relationship between water use and economic growth in China: New evidence from simultaneous equation model analysis
Hao, Y., Hu, X., & Chen, H. (2019) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.07.024 · Cited by 62
Footprint assessments on organic farming to improve ecological safety in the water source areas of the South-to-North Water Diversion project
Feng, D., & Zhao, G. (2020) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120130 · Cited by 60
Evaluation of the effect of climate change on maize water footprint under RCPs scenarios in Qazvin plain, Iran
Ahmadi, M., Etedali, H. R., & Elbeltagi, A. (2021) · Agricultural Water Management · doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2021.106969 · Cited by 60
Slaughterhouse Wastewater Treatment: A Review on Recycling and Reuse Possibilities
Philipp, M., Jabri, K. M., Wellmann, J., Akrout, H., Bousselmı, L., & Geißen, S. (2021) · Water · doi:10.3390/w13223175 · Cited by 60
“The average water requirement for the production of one tonne of meat is 15,500 m3 for cattle, 4800 m3 for pigs, 6100 m3 for sheep and 4000 m3 for poultry [8].”
Background
Relationships between regional economic sectors and water use in a water-scarce area in China: A quantitative analysis
Wang, W., Gao, L., Liu, P., & Hailu, A. (2014) · Journal of Hydrology · doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.04.057 · Cited by 60
Gender as a factor in an environmental assessment of the consumption of animal and plant-based foods in Germany
Meier, T., & Christen, O. (2012) · The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment · doi:10.1007/s11367-012-0387-x · Cited by 63
“For agricultural products, Hoekstra and Chapagain (2006) calculated an average water footprint (‘blue’ and ‘green’) of 1,038 m3 person−1 year−1, but did not differentiate between ‘blue’ and ‘green’.”
Result
Groundwater footprint methodology as policy tool for balancing water needs (agriculture & tourism) in water scarce islands - The case of Crete, Greece
Kourgialas, N. N., Karatzas, G. P., Dokou, Z., & Kokorogiannis, A. (2017) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.09.308 · Cited by 60
Identification of regional water resource stress based on water quantity and quality: A case study in a rapid urbanization region of China
Cheng, X., Chen, L., Sun, R., & Jing, Y. (2018) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.10.175 · Cited by 60
Virtual water trade and water footprint of agricultural goods: the 1961–2016 CWASI database
Tamea, S., Tuninetti, M., Soligno, I., & Laio, F. (2021) · Earth system science data · doi:10.5194/essd-13-2025-2021 · Cited by 59
Temporal Variability of Water Footprint for Maize Production: The Case of Beijing from 1978 to 2008
Sun, S., Wu, P., Wang, Y. B., & Zhao, X. (2013) · Water Resources Management · doi:10.1007/s11269-013-0296-1 · Cited by 59
The Urban Harvest Approach as an Aid for Sustainable Urban Resource Planning
Agudelo-Vera, C., Mels, A. R., Keesman, K. J., & Rijnaarts, H. H. M. (2012) · Journal of Industrial Ecology · doi:10.1111/j.1530-9290.2012.00561.x · Cited by 59
Consumption-based material flow indicators — Comparing six ways of calculating the Austrian raw material consumption providing six results
Eisenmenger, N., Wiedenhofer, D., Schaffartzik, A., Giljum, S., Brückner, M., Schandl, H., Wiedmann, T., Lenzen, M., Tukker, A., & de Koning, A. (2016) · Ecological Economics · doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2016.03.010 · Cited by 65
“…Hertwich and Peters, 115 2009; Davis et al., 2011), land requirements (Weinzettel et al., 2013; Yu et al., 2013), water (Daniels 116 et al., 2011; Hoekstra and Chapagain, 2006; Hoekstra and Hung, 2005), a compound measure of 117 Ecological Footprint (Ewing et al., 2012; Galli et al., 2013, 2012;…”
Background
AN INPUT–OUTPUT ANALYSIS OF TRENDS IN VIRTUAL WATER TRADE AND THE IMPACT ON WATER RESOURCES AND USES IN CHINA
Zhang, Z., Shi, M., Yang, H., & Chapagain, A. K. (2011) · Economic Systems Research · doi:10.1080/09535314.2011.636733 · Cited by 58
“Hoekstra and Chapagain (2007) estimated that, worldwide, about 16% of water use is for the production of goods and services that are to be exported.”
Background
The impact of changing food choices on the blue water scarcity footprint and greenhouse gas emissions of the British diet: the example of potato, pasta and rice
Hess, T. M., Chatterton, J., Daccache, A., & Williams, A. G. (2015) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.08.098 · Cited by 58
“Large volumes of water are required to support human food consumption and agricultural products account for 86% of the water consumed in the support of the global population (Hoekstra and Chapagain, 2007).”
Background
What will our ruminants drink?
Beede, D. K. (2012) · Animal Frontiers · doi:10.2527/af.2012-0040 · Cited by 58
Estimation of Water Footprint Components of Iran’s Wheat Production: Comparison of Global and National Scale Estimates
Ababaei, B., & Etedali, H. R. (2014) · Environmental Processes · doi:10.1007/s40710-014-0017-7 · Cited by 58
“Hoekstra and Chapagain (2007, 2008) made a similar assessment for the period 1997–2001.”
Result
International virtual water flows from agricultural and livestock products of India
Brindha, K. (2017) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.06.005 · Cited by 58

Authors: Hoekstra, A. Y., & Chapagain, A. K.
Affiliations: University of Twente (NL)
IHE Delft Institute for Water Education (NL)
Corresponding author: Hoekstra, A. Y.
ORCID: Hoekstra, A. Y.
Chapagain, A. K.
Venue: Water Resources Management
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2006-06-27
Volume: 21
Issue: 1
Pages: 35-48
ISSN: 0920-4741 (ISSN-L)
1573-1650
DOI: 10.1007/s11269-006-9039-x
OpenAlex: W2102620549
Cited by: 1,458
References: 13
Citations by year: 2026: 41 · 2025: 52 · 2024: 61 · 2023: 65 · 2022: 72 · 2021: 96 · 2020: 91 · 2019: 88 · 2018: 76 · 2017: 90 · 2016: 94 · 2015: 127 · 2014: 111 · 2013: 84 · 2012: 71
FWCI: 40.12
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
Locations: Water Resources Management (publishedVersion)
University of Twente Research Information (publishedVersion)
RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
University of Twente Research Information (submittedVersion)
Topics: Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Environmental Impact and Sustainability
Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Sustainability and Ecological Systems Analysis
Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Water-Energy-Food Nexus Studies
Keywords: water footprint, consumption patterns, household water use, gross national income, meat consumption, agricultural water use efficiency, water use efficiency, global water use

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Water footprints of nations: Water use by people as a function of their consumption pattern

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