Cited by 1,458Environmental Impact and SustainabilitySustainability and Ecological Systems AnalysisWater-Energy-Food Nexus Studies

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Water footprints of nations: Water use by people as a function of their consumption pattern

Hoekstra, A. Y., Chapagain, A. K.·2006·Water Resources Management

DOI 10.1007/s11269-006-9039-x

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Crop evapotranspiration : guidelines for computing crop water requirements
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Hoekstra, A. Y., & Hung, P.-Y. (2004) · Global Environmental Change · doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2004.06.004 · Cited by 724
Water footprints of nations
Chapagain, A. K., & Hoekstra, A. Y. (2004) · University of Twente Research Information · Cited by 403
Water in the Arab world: perspectives and prognoses.
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Research works printed but not linked: 2

Allan JA (1993) Fortunately there are substitutes for water otherwise our hydro-political futures would be impossible. In: Priorities for water resources allocation and management, ODA, London, pp 13–26
Haddadin MJ (2003) Exogenous water: A conduit to globalization of water resources. In: Hoekstra AY (ed) Virtual water trade: Proceedings of the International Expert Meeting on Virtual Water Trade. Value of Water Research Report Series No. 12, UNESCO-IHE, Delft, The Netherlands, http://www.waterfootprint.org/Reports/Report12.pdf http://www.waterfootprint.org/Reports/Report12.pdf

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Background
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Background
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Background
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Act On Gender: A Peep Into Intra-Household Water Use In The Australian Capital Territory (Act) Region
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“Troy et al. (n.d.) bring the concept of water footprint to the household scale, as used by Hoekstra & Chapagain (2006) at a national level.”
Method
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“Previous studies on virtual water primarily focused on water embodied in food commodities because the production of these commodities utilises a large share of water withdrawal (Dietzenbacher and Velázquez 2006; Hoekstra and Chapagain 2007; Zhao et al. 2009).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
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Flachowsky, G., Gruen, M., & Meyer, U. (2013) · Journal of Animal and Feed Sciences · doi:10.22358/jafs/65962/2013 · Cited by 15
“…there will be strong competition for arable land and non-renewable resources such as fossil carbon fuels, water (e.g., Renault and Wallender, 2000; Hoekstra and Champaign, 2007; Schlink et al., 2010; Deikman et al., 2012), some minerals (such as phosphorus; Hall and Hall, 1984; Scholz and…”
Background
Treated Industrial Wastewater Effects on Chemical Constitution Maize Biomass, Physicochemical Soil Properties, and Economic Balance
Carlos, F. S., Schäffer, N., Andreazza, R., Morris, L. A., Tedesco, M. J., Boechat, C. L., & Camargo, F. A. D. O. (2018) · Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis · doi:10.1080/00103624.2018.1427257 · Cited by 15
“Over 80% of consumptive use is for irrigation in agriculture (Hoekstra and Chapagain 2007).”
Background
Life-Cycle Assessment of Wastewater Treatment: Enhancing Sustainability Through Process Optimization
Laouane, H., Joumri, L. E., Halhaly, A., Arid, Y., Labjar, N., & Hajjaji, S. E. (2026) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su18020605 · Cited by 15
Effects Of Rubber Plantation Policy On Water Resources And Landuse Change In The Northeastern Region Of Thailand
Mangmeechai, A. (2020) · GEOGRAPHY ENVIRONMENT SUSTAINABILITY · doi:10.24057/2071-9388-2019-145 · Cited by 14
A quantitative estimation of the water footprint of the Mexican diet, corrected for washing and cooking water
Lares-Michel, M., Housni, F. E., & Cervantes, V. G. A. (2021) · Food Security · doi:10.1007/s12571-021-01160-0 · Cited by 14
Implementation of the water footprint as a water performance indicator in industrial manufacturing units located in Greece: challenges and prospects
Nydrioti, I., Moutsaki, M.-M., Leounakis, N., & Grigoropoulou, H. P. (2023) · Environmental Science and Pollution Research · doi:10.1007/s11356-023-31145-9 · Cited by 14
Factors affecting the crop's water footprint to optimize the water use efficiency in the Gaza strip, Palestine
Mizyed, A., Mogheir, Y. K. Y., & Hamada, M. (2025) · Journal of Water and Climate Change · doi:10.2166/wcc.2025.558 · Cited by 14
Water, Climate, Energy, Food: Inseparable & Indispensable
Field, C. B., & Michalak, A. M. (2015) · Daedalus · doi:10.1162/daed_a_00337 · Cited by 14
Sustainability of the Food System
MacDonald, R. S., & Reitmeier, C. A. (2017) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-804445-2.00008-9 · Cited by 14
The effects of feeding system and breed on the performance and meat quality of weaned lambs
Ateş, S., Keleş, G., Demirci, U., Doğan, Ş., Kırbaş, M., Filley, S. J., & Parker, N. B. (2020) · Small Ruminant Research · doi:10.1016/j.smallrumres.2020.106225 · Cited by 14
Assessing sectoral water stress states from the demand-side perspective through water footprint dimensions decomposition
Allegretti, G., Montoya, M. A., & Talamini, E. (2021) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152216 · Cited by 14
Integrating water science, economics, and policy for future climate adaptation
Ward, F. A. (2022) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.116574 · Cited by 17
Assessing the Impact of Embodied Water in Manufacturing Systems
Mousavi, S., Kara, S., & Kornfeld, B. J. (2015) · Procedia CIRP · doi:10.1016/j.procir.2015.01.001 · Cited by 14
Winter wheat quantity or quality? Assessing food security in Uzbekistan
Kienzler, K., Rudenko, I., Ruzimov, J., Ibragimov, N., & Lamers, J. P. A. (2011) · Food Security · doi:10.1007/s12571-010-0109-9 · Cited by 14
“In addition, the water footprint of, for instance, beef is five to ten times higher than for wheat ( Hoekstra and Chapagain 2007 ).”
Background
The water footprint of energy consumption: an assessment of water requirements of primary energy carriers
Gerbens-Leenes, P. W., Hoekstra, A. Y., & van der Meer, T. H. (2007) · University of Twente Research Information · Cited by 14
Water evaluation and planning (WEAP) model application for exploring the water deficit at catchment level in Beijing
Yang, L., Bai, X., Khanna, N. Z., Yi, S., Hu, Y., Deng, J., Gao, H., Tuo, L., Xiang, S., & Zhou, N. (2018) · Desalination and Water Treatment · doi:10.5004/dwt.2018.22332 · Cited by 14
Environmental and economic risk management of seed maize production in Iran
Fathi, F., Sheikhzeinoddin, A., & Talebnejad, R. (2020) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120772 · Cited by 14
Identification of Crop Groundwater and Surface Water Consumption Using Blue and Green Virtual Water Contents at a Subwatershed Scale
Starr, G., & Levison, J. K. (2014) · Environmental Processes · doi:10.1007/s40710-014-0040-8 · Cited by 14
“Hoekstra and Chapagain (2007) proportioned overall global water consumption as follows: 86 % agricultural, 9 % industrial, and 5 % domestic.”
Background
A pilot in corporate water footprint accounting and impact assessment: the water footprint of a sugar-containing carbonated beverage
Ercin, E., Aldaya, M. M., & Hoekstra, A. Y. (2009) · University of Twente Research Information · Cited by 14
The spatiotemporal trajectory of US agricultural irrigation withdrawal during 1981–2015
Zeng, R., & Ren, W. (2022) · Environmental Research Letters · doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ac91e2 · Cited by 14
“The divergence between the centroids of population (proxy for agricultural water demand) and irrigation withdrawal (proxy for irrigation water supply) indicates the important role of virtual water flow to redistribute the agricultural water use (Hoekstra and Chapagain 2006, Konar and Marston 2020).”
Background
Employing the agricultural water footprint concept to enhance the sustainable management of water resources: a review
Mizyed, A., Mogheir, Y. K. Y., & Hamada, M. (2024) · Water Practice & Technology · doi:10.2166/wpt.2024.274 · Cited by 13
Insights into the environmental–economic sustainability of rice production in China
Wang, L., Zhang, T., Zhou, X., Xu, T., Li, C., Li, Z., Wang, S., Li, M., & Hong, J. (2025) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2025.145205 · Cited by 13
Counting (Gendered) Water Use At Home: Feminist Approaches In Practice
Lahiri‐Dutt, K. (2015) · ACME · doi:10.14288/acme.v14i3.1225 · Cited by 13
Toward More Efficient Global Warming Policy Solutions: The Necessity for Multi-Criteria Selection of Energy Sources
Hadian, S., Madani, K. M., Rowney, C., & Mokhtari, S. (2012) · World Environmental and Water Resources Congress (EWRI) · doi:10.1061/9780784412312.289 · Cited by 13

Authors: Hoekstra, A. Y., & Chapagain, A. K.
Affiliations: University of Twente (NL)
IHE Delft Institute for Water Education (NL)
Corresponding author: Hoekstra, A. Y.
ORCID: Hoekstra, A. Y.
Chapagain, A. K.
Venue: Water Resources Management
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2006-06-27
Volume: 21
Issue: 1
Pages: 35-48
ISSN: 0920-4741 (ISSN-L)
1573-1650
DOI: 10.1007/s11269-006-9039-x
OpenAlex: W2102620549
Cited by: 1,458
References: 13
Citations by year: 2026: 41 · 2025: 52 · 2024: 61 · 2023: 65 · 2022: 72 · 2021: 96 · 2020: 91 · 2019: 88 · 2018: 76 · 2017: 90 · 2016: 94 · 2015: 127 · 2014: 111 · 2013: 84 · 2012: 71
FWCI: 40.12
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
Locations: Water Resources Management (publishedVersion)
University of Twente Research Information (publishedVersion)
RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
University of Twente Research Information (submittedVersion)
Topics: Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Environmental Impact and Sustainability
Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Sustainability and Ecological Systems Analysis
Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Water-Energy-Food Nexus Studies
Keywords: water footprint, consumption patterns, household water use, gross national income, meat consumption, agricultural water use efficiency, water use efficiency, global water use

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