Mindfulness and Depersonalization: a Nuanced Relationship
Open accessAbstract
Objectives: Although depersonalization has been described as the antithesis of mindfulness, few studies have empirically examined this relationship, and none have considered how it may differ across various facets of mindfulness, either alone or in interaction. The present study examined the relationship between symptoms of depersonalization and facets of dispositional mindfulness in a general population sample. Methods: A total of 296 adult participants (139 male, 155 female, 2 other) were recruited online via Qualtrics and completed the Cambridge Depersonalisation Scale; Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale; and Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire. Results: Controlling for general distress, depersonalization symptoms were positively associated with Observe, Describe, and Nonreactivity facets and negatively associated with Acting with Awareness and Nonjudgment facets. After controlling for intercorrelations among the facets, depersonalization symptoms remained significantly associated with higher Nonreactivity and lower Acting with Awareness. The overall positive relationship between depersonalization symptoms and the Observe facet was moderated by both Nonjudgment and Nonreactivity. Specifically, higher Observing was related to increased depersonalization symptoms at low levels of Nonjudgment and to decreased symptoms at low levels of Nonreactivity. Conclusions: The current study provides novel insight into the relationship between depersonalization symptoms and various aspects of mindfulness. Experiences of depersonalization demonstrated divergent relationships with mindfulness facets, alone and in interaction. The results may inform theoretical models of depersonalization and mindfulness-based interventions for depersonalization. © 2022, The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature.
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- Finding
The authors report that the planned statistical analyses were well-powered.
“Thus, the planned statistical analyses were well-powered.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Finding
Controlling for general distress, greater depersonalization symptoms were significantly associated with higher Observing, Describing, and Nonreactivity, and lower Acting with Awareness and Nonjudgment.
“Controlling for general distress, greater depersonalization symptoms were significantly associated with higher levels of Observing, Describing, and Nonreactivity, and lower levels of Acting with Awareness and Nonjudgment (Table 2).”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Finding
The unique associations of depersonalization with Observing, Describing, and Nonjudgment were not significant after controlling for intercorrelations among mindfulness facets.
“The unique associations between depersonalization symptoms and the Observing, Describing, and Nonjudgment facets were non-significant when controlling for the intercorrelations among the mindfulness facets in addition to general distress.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Finding
The study suggests its results may inform theoretical models of depersonalization and mindfulness-based interventions for depersonalization.
“The results may inform theoretical models of depersonalization and mindfulness-based interventions for depersonalization.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Finding
The association between Observing and depersonalization was moderated by Nonjudgment and Nonreactivity.
“The overall positive relationship between depersonalization symptoms and the Observe facet was moderated by both Nonjudgment and Nonreactivity.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified
- Finding
Higher Observing predicted increased depersonalization at low Nonjudgment and decreased symptoms at low Nonreactivity.
“Specifically, higher Observing was related to increased depersonalization symptoms at low levels of Nonjudgment and to decreased symptoms at low levels of Nonreactivity.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Finding
When general distress and intercorrelations among mindfulness facets were controlled, depersonalization remained associated with higher Nonreactivity and lower Acting with Awareness.
“Controlling for general distress and intercorrelations among the mindfulness facets, greater depersonalization symptoms remained significantly associated with higher levels of Nonreactivity and lower levels of Acting with Awareness (Table 3).”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Finding
The authors conclude that depersonalization shows divergent relationships with mindfulness facets, alone and in interaction.
“Experiences of depersonalization demonstrated divergent relationships with mindfulness facets, alone and in interaction.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Finding
After accounting for intercorrelations among mindfulness facets, depersonalization remained associated with higher Nonreactivity and lower Acting with Awareness.
“After controlling for intercorrelations among the facets, depersonalization symptoms remained significantly associated with higher Nonreactivity and lower Acting with Awareness.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Finding
Depersonalization symptoms were positively associated with Observing, Describing, and Nonreactivity, and negatively associated with Acting with Awareness and Nonjudgment when general distress was controlled.
“Controlling for general distress, depersonalization symptoms were positively associated with Observe, Describe, and Nonreactivity facets and negatively associated with Acting with Awareness and Nonjudgment facets.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Finding
The authors say their study advances prior work by examining unique relationships between depersonalization and distinct facets of dispositional mindfulness.
“The present study thus advances the literature by examining the unique relationships between experiences of depersonalization and distinct facets of dispositional mindfulness.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Finding
At low Nonreactivity, higher Observing was related to lower depersonalization symptoms, whereas at high Nonreactivity the relation was only marginally positive.
“higher Observing was significantly related to lower depersonalization symptoms at low levels of Nonreactivity”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Finding
There was also a significant Observe-by-Nonreactivity interaction in predicting depersonalization symptoms.
“There was also a significant interaction between Observe and Nonreactivity scores in predicting depersonalization symptoms, controlling for general distress (Table 5).”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Finding
There was a significant Observe-by-Nonjudgment interaction in predicting depersonalization symptoms.
“There was a significant interaction between Observe and Nonjudgment scores in predicting depersonalizing symptoms, controlling for general distress (Table 4).”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Finding
At low Nonjudgment, higher Observing was related to greater depersonalization symptoms, but at high Nonjudgment the relationship was not significant.
“higher Observing was significantly related to greater depersonalization symptoms at low levels of Nonjudgment”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Background
The Cambridge Depersonalisation Scale is described as the most widely used measure of depersonalization and as having good reliability and validity.
“The CDS is the most widely used measure of depersonalization, demonstrates good reliability and validity, and shows superior ability to discriminate depersonalization symptoms compared to broader measures of dissociation like the DES (Sierra & Berrios, 2000).”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified0 of 1 sources checked- cites Sierra & Berrios, 2000 source
- Method
The study tested its hypotheses with multiple regression models in SPSS and moderation analyses using the PROCESS macro.
“The study hypotheses were tested using multiple regression models in SPSS v28.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Method
The analyses centered predictor variables and used bootstrapping with 5000 samples to compute 95% confidence intervals.
“All predictor variables were centered in the regression models. Bootstrapping with 5000 samples was used to compute 95% confidence intervals.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified0 of 1 sources checked- cites Hayes, 2017
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Method
The final dataset consisted of 296 participants after applying data-quality screening and removing respondents with large discrepancies on FFMQ items.
“The final dataset thus consisted of 296 participants.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Background
The DASS-21 total score was used as a measure of general distress because the scale indexes a common factor of general psychological distress.
“Factor analyses support a hierarchical factor structure, in which the three subscales contain specific variance but also index a substantial common factor of general psychological distress, indicating that the use of the total score is appropriate (Henry & Crawford, 2005).”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified0 of 1 sources checked- cites Henry & Crawford, 2005 source
- Method
The study recruited 296 adult participants online via Qualtrics and administered the Cambridge Depersonalisation Scale, the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale, and the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire.
“A total of 296 adult participants (139 male, 155 female, 2 other) were recruited online via Qualtrics and completed the Cambridge Depersonalisation Scale; Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale; and Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Background
The paper notes that depersonalization is often accompanied by derealization.
“Depersonalization is often accompanied by derealization, which is the feeling that the external environment is strange or unreal.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified0 of 1 sources checked- cites American Psychiatric Association, 2013
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Method
The study examined how symptoms of depersonalization relate to facets of dispositional mindfulness in a general population sample, while controlling for general distress.
“The present study examined the relationship between symptoms of depersonalization and facets of dispositional mindfulness in a general population sample.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Method
The sample was drawn from adults in the USA recruited via Qualtrics online sampling in late 2020.
“Adult participants residing in the USA were recruited via Qualtrics online sampling and completed the surveys in November and December 2020.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Background
When persistent or recurrent and associated with distress or impairment, depersonalization/derealization disorder may be diagnosed.
“When such experiences are persistent or recurrent and are associated with significant distress or functional impairment, an individual may be diagnosed with depersonalization/derealization disorder (DPD).”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Literature on mindfulness and dissociation remains scarce and discordant.
“literature on mindfulness and dissociation remains scarce and discording”
From Integrating choice points into mindfulness training for the dissociative subtype of PTSD: A case report (2024) · cites this paper as Levin et al., 2022
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Participant exclusions do not yield the reported final sample
MajorThe methods state that 321 participants had eligible data and 34 were subsequently removed. That leaves 287 participants, not the reported 296 used in the analyses.
Reported 296 · recomputed 287
“Participants who had high discrepancy between positively and negatively worded items across the FFMQ (more than two standard deviations away from the mean) were removed from the dataset (n = 34), as high discrepancy reflects inattention to item content and/or inconsistent responding. The final dataset thus consisted of 296 participants.”
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Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Hayes, A. F. (2017). Mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Argyri, E. K., Krecké, J., Robinson, O. C., Evans, J., Skragge, M., & Morgan, C. J. A. (2025) · Harm Reduction Journal · doi:10.1186/s12954-025-01347-0 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“…individuals experiencing post-psychedelic distress often report benefit from strategies that helped them reconnect with the present moment [10] and various grounding practices ranging from experiences with water, exercise, yoga to creative practices, singing and playing instruments [8], [59, 60].”
O’Rourke, N., & Egan, J. (2023) · Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1080/15299732.2023.2181473 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“…has explored the use of Mindfulness in the treatment of depersonalization and its associated distress whereby there may be an impairment of mindfulness ability in DP, however the literature has produced inconsistent findings regarding effectiveness (Levin et al., 2022; Nestler et al., 2015).”
ResultTo, M. N., & Schuman-Olivier, Z. (2024) · Psychiatry Research Case Reports · doi:10.1016/j.psycr.2024.100218 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“…between dissociative symptoms and mindfulness among clinical populations (Escudero-Pérez et al., 2016; Perona-Garcelán et al., 2014; Sharma et al., 2016), while others find positive correlations between depersonalization and nonreactivity, a fundamental mindfulness trait (Levin et al., 2022).”
BackgroundStructured dance movement therapy for depersonalization-derealization disorder
Millman, L. S. M., Hunter, E. C. M., Terhune, D. B., & Orgs, G. (2025) · The Arts in Psychotherapy · doi:10.1016/j.aip.2025.102374 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Abdoli, M., Carraturo, F., Afzaal, D. F., Cotrufo, P., & Cella, S. (2025) · Eating and Weight Disorders - Studies on Anorexia Bulimia and Obesity · doi:10.1007/s40519-025-01795-4 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Cao, H., Qian, J., Tang, F., Dong, Y., Ren, H., Xue, X., Mao, N., & Liu, X. (2025) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-024-06341-7 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Fino, E., Jemmett‐Skinner, T., Evans‐Miller, R., Perkins, J., Malik, M., Robinson, M., & Webb, G. (2024) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12976 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Kaufman, S. R., Damiao, J. A., Paljevic, E. D., Amendola, C. L., Camenisch, C., & Westphal, M. (2025) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.1080/07448481.2025.2516604 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“40 This would likely also positively impact patient care and patient outcomes.”
Trait mindfulness buffers depersonalization symptoms among young adults exposed to childhood abuse
Mili, F. A., & Lindsay, E. K. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1838217 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Prior research on Nonreact scores has yielded inconsistent associations with depersonalization and related symptoms (Levin et al., 2022; Baer et al., 2006), perhaps due to overlap between Nonreact and depersonalization constructs in non-meditator samples.”
达, 瓦. (2024) · Advances in Psychology · doi:10.12677/ap.2024.142123 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
IsGuanxicritical to the job burnout of ITP and IS/IT users in Chinese society?
Chang, C. L.-H., & Wu, S. (2022) · Information Technology and People · doi:10.1108/itp-08-2021-0652 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
DEPERSONALIZACIJOS IR DEREALIZACIJOS SINDROMAS: NUO ĮTARIMO IKI ATPAŽINIMO. DIAGNOSTIKOS IŠŠŪKIAI
Petrauskaitė, G., Vilniškytė, M., & Navickas, A. (2024) · Health Sciences · doi:10.35988/sm-hs.2024.241
Compliance with standard precautions among hematology nurses: A cross-sectional study
Du, X., Tang, L., Wang, H., Li, Y., Wang, L., He, W., Zhang, X., & Song, C. (2024) · American Journal of Infection Control · doi:10.1016/j.ajic.2024.11.010 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Quigley, L., Kulke, M. F., & Levin, K. K. (2025) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-025-02720-7
“Levin et al. (2022) also previously found that depersonalization symptoms were significantly positively correlated with the Observe and Non-reactivity facets and significantly negatively correlated with the Acting with Awareness and Nonjudgment facets.”
Self-citationFeelings of Reality: Toward a Phenomenology of Experiential Realness
Rojas‐Hernández, J., & Borkel, L. F. (2026) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1177/10892680261468208
- Authors
- Levin, K. K., Gornish, A., & Quigley, L.
- Affiliations
- Yeshiva University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Quigley, Leanne
- ORCID
- Quigley, Leanne
- Venue
- Mindfulness
- Published
- 2022-04-27
- Volume
- 13
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1479-1489
- ISSN
- 1868-8527 (ISSN-L)
- 1868-8535
- PMC
- PMC9043097
- OpenAlex
- W4224939577
- Semantic Scholar
- ab989c43066ab1914eb2a1f9aa7b50c65c3018b6
- Cited by
- 15
- References
- 56
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 1
- FWCI
- 2.97
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Mindfulness (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Psychosomatic Disorders and Their Treatments
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- depersonalization, trait mindfulness, mindfulness facets, Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire, non-reactivity, non-judgment, acting with awareness, observation, mindfulness-based interventions
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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