Maternal infection during pregnancy and risk of autism spectrum disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Abstract
Conflicting evidence exists with regard to the relationship between maternal infection during pregnancy and the risk of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in offspring. The aim of this meta-analysis was to systematically assess this relationship. To identify relevant studies, we conducted systematic searches in PubMed and Embase of scientific articles published through March 2016. Random-effects models were adopted to estimate overall relative risk. A total of 15 studies (2 cohort and 13 case-control studies) involving more than 40,000 ASD cases were included in our meta-analysis. Our results showed that maternal infection during pregnancy was associated with an increased risk of ASD in offspring (OR=1.13, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.03-1.23), particularly among those requiring hospitalization (OR=1.30, 95% CI: 1.14-1.50). Subgroup analyses suggested that risk may be modulated by the type of infectious agent, time of infectious exposure, and site of infection. These findings indicate that maternal infection during pregnancy increases the risk of ASD in offspring. Possible mechanisms may include direct effects of pathogens and, more indirectly, the effects of inflammatory responses on the developing brain.
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The link between MIA and enhanced risk for ASD is bolstered by large-scale population-based studies showing small but significantly increased risk due to maternal prenatal infections.
“The link between MIA and enhanced risk for ASD is bolstered by large-scale population-based studies showing small but significantly increased risk due to maternal prenatal infections [117–122].”
From The ASD Living Biology: from cell proliferation to clinical phenotype (2019) · cites this paper as [120]
Genetic and non-genetic factors and their interaction may act at very early periods of fetal brain development and potentially alter protein or gene expression regulation leading to shared pathways for complex ASD-related phenotypes.
“Recent evidence11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20 has also catalyzed the concept that genetic and non-genetic factors and their interaction, may act at very early periods of fetal brain development and potentially alter protein or gene expression regulation leading to shared pathways for complex ASD-related phenotypes.”
From Maternal immune activation dysregulation of the fetal brain transcriptome and relevance to the pathophysiology of autism spectrum disorder (2018) · cites this paper as [18]
Maternal immune activation (MIA) via infection during pregnancy increases risk for autism spectrum disorder (ASD).
“Maternal immune activation (MIA) via infection during pregnancy is known to increase risk for autism spectrum disorder (ASD).”
From Maternal immune activation dysregulation of the fetal brain transcriptome and relevance to the pathophysiology of autism spectrum disorder (2018) · cites this paper as [18]
Inflammation resulting from human maternal infection and/or maternal autoimmune disease has been associated with an increased prevalence of ASD in progeny.
“The inflammation resulting from human maternal infection and/or maternal autoimmune disease has been associated with an increased prevalence of ASD in progeny 63.”
From Gastrointestinal Issues and Autism Spectrum Disorder (2020) · cites this paper as [63]
In utero exposure to fever or infection, particularly of viral origin, is a prominent environmental risk factor for ASD.
“A prominent environmental risk factor for ASD may be in utero exposure to fever or infection, particularly of viral origin, with recent data suggesting that children with ASD and GI problems may be particularly likely to have been exposed [56, 67–70].”
From Serotonin as a link between the gut-brain-microbiome axis in autism spectrum disorders (2018) · cites this paper as [69]
Children with ASD and GI problems may be particularly likely to have been exposed to fever or infection in utero.
“with recent data suggesting that children with ASD and GI problems may be particularly likely to have been exposed [56, 67–70].”
From Serotonin as a link between the gut-brain-microbiome axis in autism spectrum disorders (2018) · cites this paper as [69]
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“…studies have investigated the contribution of maternal infection during pregnancy to the risk of ASD with varying results; some (Lee et al., 2015; Visser et al., 2013) found a positive association, whereas others (Abdallah et al., 2012; Atladottir et al., 2010; Buchmayer et al., 2009; Dodds et…”
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- Authors
- Jiang, H.-Y., Xu, L.-L., Shao, L., Xia, R.-M., Yu, Z.-H., Ling, Z.-X., Yang, F., Deng, M., & Ruan, B.
- Affiliations
- First Affiliated Hospital Zhejiang University (CN)
- Hangzhou Seventh Peoples Hospital (CN)
- Zhejiang Chinese Medical University (CN)
- Corresponding author
- Ruan, Bing
- Venue
- Brain Behavior and Immunity
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2016-11
- Volume
- 58
- Pages
- 165-172
- ISSN
- 0889-1591 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2417157474
- Cited by
- 391
- References
- 58
- Citations by year
- 2026: 26 · 2025: 39 · 2024: 60 · 2023: 40 · 2022: 55 · 2021: 34 · 2020: 42 · 2019: 48 · 2018: 25 · 2017: 16 · 2016: 4
- FWCI
- 3.26
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Brain Behavior and Immunity (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Biological Psychiatry › Tryptophan and brain disorders
- Keywords
- maternal infection, pregnancy, autism spectrum disorder, prenatal infection, offspring risk, hospitalization, time of infection, infection site, maternal inflammation, brain development
- MeSH terms
- Autism Spectrum Disorder, Female, Humans, Pregnancy, Pregnancy Complications, Infectious, Risk Factors
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